HANDLING AND PROCESSING OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE FROM

0,72
MB NUCLEAR APPLICATIONS

153
stron

2345
ID International Atomic Energy Agency

2001
rok

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Background . 1

1.2. Objective and scope . 1

1.3. Structure . 2

2. WASTE ARISINGS 4

2.1. Sources of waste . 4

2.1.1. Nuclear research centres . 4

2.1.2. Hospitals . 5

2.1.3. Industry . 7

2.1.4. Universities and research establishments . 10

2.1.5. Decontamination and decommissioning . 10

2.2. Types and amount of waste arising 10

2.2.1. Scale of radioactive waste production in Member States . 10

2.2.2. Aqueous waste generation 13

2.2.3. Liquid organic waste generation . 15

2.2.3.1. Oils 15

2.2.3.2. Scintillation liquids . 17

2.2.3.3. Solvents 18

2.2.4. Solid waste generation 18

2.2.5. Wet solid waste generation . 19

2.2.5.1. Spent ion exchange resins . 19

2.2.5.2. Precipitation sludges . 19

2.2.5.3. Evaporator concentrates 19

2.2.6. Biological waste generation 20

2.2.7. Medical waste generation 20

3. WASTE CLASSIFICATION 21

3.1. General considerations . 21

3.2. Waste classification for handling, treatment and storage 21

3.3. Classification for release from regulatory control . 22

3.3.1. Exemption and clearance concept 22

3.3.2. Requirements for release to the environment under authorization . 23

3.4. Classification for waste disposal . 24

4. COMPONENTS OF A COMPREHENSIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM . 25

4.1. National policy 25

4.2. Legislation and regulations . 26

4.3. Waste management facilities 27

4.3.1. General 27

4.3.2. Planning considerations . 28

4.3.3. Waste minimization . 29

4.3.4. Pretreatment 29

4.3.5. Treatment 30

4.3.6. Conditioning 31

4.3.7. Storage 31

4.3.8. Transportation . 32

4.3.9. Disposal . 32

4.3.10. Documentation 32

4.4. Considerations for a cost effective system 34

5. STORAGE OF UNCONDITIONED WASTE . 34

5.1. General requirements 34

5.1.1. Storage at radioisotope user establishments . 35

5.1.2. Storage at radioisotope production facilities 35

5.1.3. Storage at research reactors . 35

5.2. Specific requirements for the storage of biological and medical radioactive waste . 36

5.3. Decay storage . 36

5.4. Design features for an interim storage facility . 37

5.4.1. General 37

5.4.2. Additional design features for liquid waste storage . 41

5.5. Operating procedures 42

5.5.1. Receipt phase . 42

5.5.2. Storage phase . 43

5.5.3. Dispatch phase 43

6. TREATMENT OF AQUEOUS WASTE . 44

6.1. General considerations 44

6.2. Selection of treatment processes 45

6.3. Solid/liquid separation . 45

6.3.1. Sedimentation . 48

6.3.2. Filtration . 48

6.3.3. Centrifugation and hydrocyclone techniques 49

6.4. Chemical precipitation 49

6.4.1. General principles . 49

6.4.2. Pretreatment 53

6.4.2.1. pH adjustment . 54

6.4.2.2. Chemical oxidation . 54

6.4.2.3. Chemical reduction . 55

6.4.3. Specific chemical reaction processes 56

6.4.3.1. General precipitation processes . 56

6.4.3.2. Treatment for specific radionuclides . 59

6.4.3.3. Combined precipitation processes . 60

6.5. Ion exchange/sorption . 60

6.6. Evaporation . 62

6.7. New technologies . 63

6.7.1. Reverse osmosis . 63

7. TREATMENT OF RADIOACTIVE ORGANIC LIQUID 64

7.1. Pretreatment considerations . 65

7.1.1. Strategic considerations 65

7.1.2. Preliminary waste management steps . 65

7.1.3. Process selection . 66

7.2. Treatment processes . 67

7.2.1. Incineration . 67

7.2.2. Wet oxidation . 71

7.2.3. Electrochemical oxidation 72

7.2.4. Acid digestion . 72

7.2.5. Distillation . 73

7.2.6. Phase separation by adduct formation 74

7.2.7. Biological digestion 74

8. TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE . 75

8.1. General considerations . 75

8.2. Pretreatment methods 76

8.3. Treatment methods 79

8.3.1. Decontamination . 79

8.3.2. Compaction 80

8.3.2.1. Vacuum compaction . 81

8.3.2.2. In-drum compaction . 81

8.3.2.3. Drum compaction . 82

8.3.3. Incineration . 84

8.4. Options for treating biological/medical waste 85

8.4.1. Pretreatment 85

8.4.1.1. Collection . 85

8.4.1.2. Damp waste . 86

8.4.1.3. Sterilization/disinfection 86

8.4.2. Treatment 87

8.4.2.1. Incineration . 87

8.4.2.2. Maceration/pulverization . 87

8.4.2.3. Chemical methods 88

9. IMMOBILIZATION MATERIALS AND PROCESSES . 88

9.1. Matrix materials 89

9.1.1. Hydraulic cements . 90

9.1.1.1. Portland cement 90

9.1.1.2. Masonry cement 93

9.1.1.3. Portland sodium silicate cement 95

9.1.1.4. Portland pozzolanic cement . 95

9.1.1.5. Portland blast furnace slag cement 96

9.1.2. Bitumen . 96

9.1.3. Polymers . 96

9.2. Immobilization processes . 97

9.2.1 Cementation processes 97

9.2.1.1. In-drum mixing . 97

9.2.1.2. Roller mixing 98

9.2.1.3. Tumble mixing . 98

9.2.1.4. In-line mixing 99

9.2.1.5. Status of waste conditioning by cementation . 99

9.2.2. Bituminization processes . 100

9.2.3. Polymer processes 101

9.3. Process selection . 101

9.3.1. General 101

9.3.2. Guidelines for process selection . 101

9.3.2.1. Process evaluation 101

9.3.2.2. Waste form properties 103

10. CONDITIONING OF SPECIFIC WASTE TYPES . 104

10.1. Conditioning of ion exchange resins, sludges and concentrates 104

10.2. Conditioning of organic liquids 106

10.2.1. Treatment with absorbents . 106

10.2.2. Cementation 108

10.2.3. Combined processes 110

10.3. Conditioning of biological waste and animal carcasses . 111