| | Management of Waste Containing Tritium and Carbon-14 |
| | 0,74 | | MB |
| | 120 | | stron |
| | 2479 | | ID | International Atomic Energy Agency |
| | 2004 | | rok |
| | CONTENTS |
| | 1INTRODUCTION 1 |
| | 1.1Background 1 |
| | 1.2Objectives and scope 2 |
| | 2ENVIRONMENTAL AND REGULATORY ISSUES 3 |
| | 2.1Problems associated with 14C and tritium in waste 3 |
| | 2.2Regulatory issues 4 |
| | 2.2.1Argentina 6 |
| | 2.2.2Canada 6 |
| | 2.2.3France 7 |
| | 2.2.4Russian Federation 7 |
| | 2.2.5United Kingdom 8 |
| | 2.2.6United States of America 8 |
| | 3PRODUCTION AND EMISSION PATHWAYS 11 |
| | 3.1Carbon-14 production and release 11 |
| | 3.1.1Natural production in the atmosphere 11 |
| | 3.1.2Production in nuclear explosions 11 |
| | 3.1.3Production in and release from nuclear power reactors 11 |
| | 3.1.3.1Light water reactors 14 |
| | 3.1.3.2Heavy water reactors 18 |
| | 3.1.3.3Magnox reactors and advanced gas cooled reactors 21 |
| | 3.1.3.4High temperature gas cooled reactors 23 |
| | 3.1.3.5Fast breeder reactors 24 |
| | 3.1.3.6Summary of waste containing 14C produced by reactor operation 24 |
| | 3.1.4Release during spent fuel reprocessing 25 |
| | 3.2Tritium production and release 28 |
| | 3.2.1Production and release in nuclear power reactors 29 |
| | 3.2.1.1Light water reactors 31 |
| | 3.2.1.2Heavy water reactors 31 |
| | 3.2.1.3Other types of reactor 32 |
| | 3.2.2Release during spent fuel reprocessing 33 |
| | 3.3Categories of waste containing 14C and tritium 36 |
| | 3.3.1Reactor operation and fuel cycle waste 36 |
| | 3.3.2Other waste 37 |
| | 4REDUCTION OF PRODUCTION AND RELEASE 37 |
| | 4.1Reduction of 14C production and release 37 |
| | 4.2Reduction of tritium production and release 39 |
| | 5TECHNOLOGIES TO CAPTURE 14C AND TRITIUM FROM EMISSION STREAMS 41 |
| | 5.1Removal of 14C from gas streams 41 |
| | 5.1.1Single-step chemical reaction involving absorption in an alkaline earth hydroxide slurry or solid |
| | 42 |
| | 5.1.1.1Alkaline slurry scrubber 42 |
| | 5.1.1.2Alkaline packed bed column 43 |
| | 5.1.2Two-step chemical reaction involving sodium hydroxide and lime slurry 44 |
| | 5.1.2.1Double alkali process 45 |
| | 5.1.3Physical absorption 45 |
| | 5.1.3.1Gas absorption by wet scrubbing 45 |
| | 5.1.3.2Ethanolamine scrubbing 46 |
| | 5.1.3.3Absorption in a fluorocarbon solvent 46 |
| | 5.1.4Physical adsorption on an active surface 47 |
| | 5.1.5Other methods 47 |
| | 5.2Removal of 14C from liquid waste 49 |
| | 5.3Separation of tritium from spent fuel 51 |
| | 5.3.1Voloxidation 51 |
| | 5.3.2Pyrochemical processing 51 |
| | 5.4Removal of tritium from gas streams 52 |
| | 5.4.1Removal of HT 52 |
| | 5.4.2Removal of HTO 52 |
| | 5.4.2.1Molecular sieves 53 |
| | 5.4.2.2Dehumidification 53 |
| | 5.5Removal of tritium from liquid waste 53 |
| | 5.5.1Tritium enrichment 54 |
| | 5.5.2Other tritium removal technologies 58 |
| | 6ANALYTICAL AND MONITORING METHODS 59 |
| | 6.1Carbon-14 monitoring systems 60 |
| | 6.1.1Carbon-14 sample collection 60 |
| | 6.1.1.1Air samples 60 |
| | 6.1.1.2Water samples 61 |
| | 6.1.1.3Vegetation and soils 61 |
| | 6.1.2Carbon-14 sample preparation 61 |
| | 6.1.3Analytical methods for 14C 63 |
| | 6.1.3.1Gas counting 63 |
| | 6.1.3.2Liquid scintillation counting 63 |
| | 6.1.3.3Accelerator mass spectrometry 63 |
| | 6.1.4Carbon-14 monitoring methods 63 |
| | 6.2Tritium monitoring systems 64 |
| | 6.2.1Air samples 64 |
| | 6.2.2Samples of liquids 66 |
| | 6.2.3Tritium analytical methods and monitoring systems 67 |
| | 6.2.3.1Ionization chambers 67 |
| | 6.2.3.2Proportional counters 67 |
| | 6.2.3.3Scintillation crystal detectors 68 |
| | 6.2.3.4Mass spectrometers 68 |
| | 6.2.3.5Liquid scintillation counters 68 |
| | 6.2.3.6Portable room air monitors 69 |
| | 6.2.3.7Fixed station room air monitors 69 |
| | 6.2.3.8Glovebox atmosphere monitors 69 |
| | 6.2.3.9Hood and exhaust duct air monitors 69 |
| | 6.2.3.10Exhaust stack air monitors 70 |
| | 6.2.4Specialized instrumentation 70 |
| | 6.2.4.1Remote field tritium analysis system 70 |
| | 6.2.4.2Surface activity monitor 70 |
| | 6.2.4.3Breathalyser 71 |
| | 7IMMOBILIZATION AND WASTE FORM EVALUATION 71 |
| | 7.1Immobilization technologies for waste containing 14C 72 |
| | 7.1.1Cementation 73 |
| | 7.1.2Other methods 73 |
| | 7.2Immobilization technologies for waste containing tritium 74 |
| | 7.2.1Drying agents 75 |
| | 7.2.2Hydraulic cements 75 |
| | 7.2.3Organic agents 76 |
| | 7.2.4Hydrides 76 |
| | 7.3Assessment of immobilized waste form and quality control 77 |
| | 7.3.1Waste form characterization 78 |
| | 7.3.2Waste form testing 79 |
| | 8STORAGE AND DISPOSAL 81 |
| | 8.1Waste acceptance requirements 81 |
| | 8.1.1France 83 |
| | 8.1.2Japan 84 |
| | 8.1.3Spain 85 |
| | 8.1.4United Kingdom 86 |
| | 8.1.5United States of America 86 |
| | 8.2Storage and disposal options for waste containing 14C and tritium 87 |
| | 8.2.1Storage options 87 |
| | 8.2.1.1Storage of HTO waste 88 |
| | 8.2.1.2Storage of tritium gas 89 |
| | 8.2.1.3Storage in engineered structures 89 |
| | 8.2.1.4Storage of irradiated graphite waste 90 |
| | 8.2.2Disposal options 91 |
| | 8.2.2.1Near surface disposal 91 |
| | 8.2.2.2Liquid injection into geological formations 92 |
| | 8.2.2.3Disposal in geological formations 93 |
| | 8.2.3Other options 93 |
| | 8.3Strategy for the management of waste containing 14C and tritium 94 |
| | 9CONCLUSIONS 94 |
| | REFERENCES 97 |
| | CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW 109 |