TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR MERCURY

8,73
MB

676
stron

3459
ID Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

2002
rok

CONTENTS

FOREWORD v

QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS vii

CONTRIBUTORS ix

PEER REVIEW xi

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

LIST OF TABLES xix

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 1

1.1 WHAT IS MERCURY? 1

1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO MERCURY WHEN IT ENTERS THE ENVIRONMENT? 4

1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO MERCURY? 6

1.4 HOW CAN MERCURY ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY? 11

1.5 HOW CAN MERCURY AFFECT MY HEALTH? 12

1.6 HOW CAN MERCURY AFFECT CHILDREN? 16

1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO MERCURY? 19

1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO

MERCURY? 25

1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO PROTECT

HUMAN HEALTH? 26

1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION? 27

2. HEALTH EFFECTS 29

2.1 INTRODUCTION 29

2.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE 31

2.2.1 Inhalation Exposure 33

2.2.1.1 Death 34

2.2.1.2 Systemic Effects 43

2.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects 55

2.2.1.4 Neurological Effects 58

2.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects 67

2.2.1.6 Developmental Effects 69

2.2.1.7 Genotoxic Effects 72

2.2.1.8 Cancer 74

2.2.2 Oral Exposure 74

2.2.2.1 Death 75

2.2.2.2 Systemic Effects 105

2.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects 123

2.2.2.4 Neurological Effects 124

2.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects 138

2.2.2.6 Developmental Effects 140

2.2.2.7 Genotoxic Effects 152

2.2.2.8 Cancer 154

2.2.3 Dermal Exposure 155

2.2.3.1 Death 155

2.2.3.2 Systemic Effects 156

2.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects 159

2.2.3.4 Neurological Effects 160

2.2.3.5 Reproductive Effects 161

2.2.3.6 Developmental Effects 161

2.2.3.7 Genotoxic Effects 161

2.2.3.8 Cancer 161

2.3 TOXICOKINETICS 161

2.3.1 Absorption 162

2.3.1.1 Inhalation Exposure 163

2.3.1.2 Oral Exposure 164

2.3.1.3 Dermal Exposure 169

2.3.1.4 Other Routes of Exposure 170

2.3.2 Distribution 171

2.3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure 171

2.3.2.2 Oral Exposure 175

2.3.2.3 Dermal Exposure 180

2.3.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure 181

2.3.3 Metabolism 182

2.3.4 Elimination and Excretion 185

2.3.5 Physiologically based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models 193

2.3.5.1 Summary of PBPK Models 194

2.3.5.2 Mercury PBPK Model Comparison 194

2.3.5.3 Discussion of Models 196

2.4 MECHANISMS OF ACTION 207

2.4.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms 207

2.4.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity 210

2.4.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations 219

2.5 RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 220

2.6 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY 301

2.7 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT 310

2.7.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Mercury 311

2.7.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Mercury 317

2.8 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS 323

2.9 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE 327

2.10 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS 329

2.10.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure 330

2.10.2 Reducing Body Burden 331

2.10.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects 334

2.11 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE 335

2.11.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Mercury 335

2.11.2 Identification of Data Needs 341

2.11.3 Ongoing Studies 357

3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION 363

3.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY 363

3.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 363

4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL 371

4.1 PRODUCTION 371

4.2 IMPORT/EXPORT 374

4.3 USE 375

4.4 DISPOSAL 377

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE 379

5.1 OVERVIEW 379

5.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT 380

5.2.1 Air 386

5.2.2 Water 391

5.2.3 Soil 396

5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE 398

5.3.1 Transport and Partitioning 398

5.3.2 Transformation and Degradation 405

5.3.2.1 Air 406

5.3.2.2 Water 406

5.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil 409

5.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT 410

5.4.1 Air 410

5.4.2 Water 413

5.4.3 Sediment and Soil 414

5.4.4 Other Environmental Media 416

5.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE 431

5.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN 454

5.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES 464

5.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE 476

5.8.1 Identification of Data Needs 476

5.8.2 Ongoing Studies 482

6. ANALYTICAL METHODS 487

6.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS 488

6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES 495

6.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE 504

6.3.1 Identification of Data Needs 505

6.3.2 Ongoing Studies 506

7. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES 509

8. REFERENCES 525

9. GLOSSARY 611

APPENDICES

B. ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS A-1

B. USER'S GUIDE B-1

C. ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS C-1