| | TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR HYDROGEN SULFIDE |
| | 3,51 | | MB |
| | 253 | | stron |
| | 3467 | | ID | Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry |
| | 2006 | | rok |
| | CONTENTS |
| | DISCLAIMER ii |
| | UPDATE STATEMENT ..iii |
| | FOREWORD ..v |
| | QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS..vii |
| | CONTRIBUTORS..ix |
| | PEER REVIEW xi |
| | CONTENTS.xiii |
| | LIST OF FIGURES xvii |
| | LIST OF TABLESxix |
| | 1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT.1 |
| | 1.1 WHAT IS HYDROGEN SULFIDE?1 |
| | 1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE WHEN IT ENTERS THE ENVIRONMENT? .2 |
| | 1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE? .2 |
| | 1.4 HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY? 3 |
| | 1.5 HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE AFFECT MY HEALTH? ..4 |
| | 1.6 HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE AFFECT CHILDREN?5 |
| | 1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE?.6 |
| | 1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO |
| | HYDROGEN SULFIDE? .6 |
| | 1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO PROTECT |
| | HUMAN HEALTH?.7 |
| | 1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION? ..8 |
| | 2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH 9 |
| | 2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE IN THE |
| | UNITED STATES 9 |
| | 2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS..10 |
| | 2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS (MRLs) ..14 |
| | 3. HEALTH EFFECTS..21 |
| | 3.1 INTRODUCTION..21 |
| | 3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE .21 |
| | 3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure ..22 |
| | 3.2.1.1 Death .22 |
| | 3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects ..26 |
| | 3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects61 |
| | 3.2.1.4 Neurological Effects..62 |
| | 3.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects .68 |
| | 3.2.1.6 Developmental Effects .70 |
| | 3.2.1.7 Cancer..71 |
| | 3.2.2 Oral Exposure..72 |
| | 3.2.2.1 Death .72 |
| | 3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects ..72 |
| | 3.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects73 |
| | 3.2.2.4 Neurological Effects..73 |
| | 3.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects .73 |
| | 3.2.2.6 Developmental Effects .73 |
| | 3.2.2.7 Cancer..73 |
| | 3.2.3 Dermal Exposure.73 |
| | 3.2.3.1 Death .73 |
| | 3.2.3.2 Systemic Effects ..74 |
| | 3.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects74 |
| | 3.2.3.4 Neurological Effects..74 |
| | 3.2.3.5 Reproductive Effects .75 |
| | 3.2.3.6 Developmental Effects .75 |
| | 3.2.3.7 Cancer..75 |
| | 3.3 GENOTOXICITY 75 |
| | 3.4 TOXICOKINETICS..75 |
| | 3.4.1 Absorption.76 |
| | 3.4.1.1 Inhalation Exposure76 |
| | 3.4.1.2 Oral Exposure76 |
| | 3.4.1.3 Dermal Exposure .77 |
| | 3.4.2 Distribution 77 |
| | 3.4.2.1 Inhalation Exposure77 |
| | 3.4.2.2 Oral Exposure79 |
| | 3.4.2.3 Dermal Exposure .79 |
| | 3.4.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure ..79 |
| | 3.4.3 Metabolism79 |
| | 3.4.4 Elimination and Excretion..82 |
| | 3.4.4.1 Inhalation Exposure82 |
| | 3.4.4.2 Oral Exposure82 |
| | 3.4.4.3 Dermal Exposure .83 |
| | 3.4.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models .83 |
| | 3.5 MECHANISMS OF ACTION ..84 |
| | 3.5.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms..84 |
| | 3.5.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity..86 |
| | 3.5.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations ..88 |
| | 3.6 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS..88 |
| | 3.7 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY.89 |
| | 3.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT ..91 |
| | 3.8.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Hydrogen Sulfide .92 |
| | 3.8.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Hydrogen Sulfide 93 |
| | 3.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS ..93 |
| | 3.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE..95 |
| | 3.11 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS.95 |
| | 3.11.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure ..96 |
| | 3.11.2 Reducing Body Burden..97 |
| | 3.11.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects .97 |
| | 3.12 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE.98 |
| | 3.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Hydrogen Sulfide 98 |
| | 3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs .100 |
| | 3.12.3 Ongoing Studies..107 |
| | 4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION109 |
| | 4.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY109 |
| | 4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.109 |
| | 5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL.113 |
| | 5.1 PRODUCTION ..113 |
| | 5.2 IMPORT/EXPORT ..113 |
| | 5.3 USE..114 |
| | 5.4 DISPOSAL..114 |
| | 6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE ..115 |
| | 6.1 OVERVIEW115 |
| | 6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT..118 |
| | 6.2.1 Air ..118 |
| | 6.2.2 Water.119 |
| | 6.2.3 Soil .120 |
| | 6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE.121 |
| | 6.3.1 Transport and Partitioning121 |
| | 6.3.2 Transformation and Degradation .122 |
| | 6.3.2.1 Air122 |
| | 6.3.2.2 Water ..122 |
| | 6.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil.123 |
| | 6.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT.123 |
| | 6.4.1 Air ..124 |
| | 6.4.2 Water.127 |
| | 6.4.3 Sediment and Soil 127 |
| | 6.4.4 Other Environmental Media128 |
| | 6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE .129 |
| | 6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN..131 |
| | 6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES .132 |
| | 6.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE..132 |
| | 6.8.1 Identification of Data Needs ..133 |
| | 6.8.2 Ongoing Studies 135 |
| | 7. ANALYTICAL METHODS 137 |
| | 7.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS.137 |
| | 7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES..143 |
| | 7.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE..151 |
| | 7.3.1 Identification of Data Needs ..151 |
| | 7.3.2 Ongoing Studies 152 |
| | 8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES ..153 |
| | 9. REFERENCES ..159 |
| | 10. GLOSSARY .201 |
| | APPENDICES |
| | A. ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS .A-1 |
| | B. USER’S GUIDE... B-1 |
| | C. ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS. C-1 |
| | D. INDEX . |