| | TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR CESIUM |
| | 2,28 | | MB |
| | 306 | | stron |
| | 3468 | | ID | Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry |
| | 2004 | | rok |
| | CONTENTS |
| | DISCLAIMERii |
| | UPDATE STATEMENT.iii |
| | FOREWORD.. v |
| | QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS..vii |
| | CONTRIBUTORS..xi |
| | PEER REVIEW .xiii |
| | CONTENTS.. xv |
| | LIST OF FIGURES .xix |
| | LIST OF TABLESxxi |
| | 1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT. 1 |
| | 1.1 WHAT IS CESIUM?. 2 |
| | 1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO CESIUM WHEN IT ENTERS THE ENVIRONMENT? 3 |
| | 1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO CESIUM?.. 4 |
| | 1.4 HOW CAN CESIUM ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY?. 5 |
| | 1.5 HOW CAN CESIUM AFFECT MY HEALTH? 5 |
| | 1.6 HOW CAN CESIUM AFFECT CHILDREN? 6 |
| | 1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO CESIUM? .. 7 |
| | 1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO |
| | CESIUM?.. 7 |
| | 1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO PROTECT |
| | HUMAN HEALTH?. 7 |
| | 1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?. 9 |
| | 2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH .11 |
| | 2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO CESIUM IN THE UNITED STATES.. |
| | 11 |
| | 2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS.. 12 |
| | 2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS . 16 |
| | 3. HEALTH EFFECTS.. 19 |
| | 3.1 INTRODUCTION.. 19 |
| | 3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF STABLE CESIUM BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE 24 |
| | 3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure . 25 |
| | 3.2.1.1 Death 25 |
| | 3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects.. 25 |
| | 3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects .. 25 |
| | 3.2.1.4 Neurological Effects . 25 |
| | 3.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects. 25 |
| | 3.2.1.6 Developmental Effects. 26 |
| | 3.2.1.7 Cancer .. 26 |
| | 3.2.2 Oral Exposure . 26 |
| | 3.2.2.1 Death 26 |
| | 3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects.. 26 |
| | 3.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects .. 28 |
| | 3.2.2.4 Neurological Effects . 29 |
| | 3.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects. 29 |
| | 3.2.2.6 Developmental Effects. 29 |
| | 3.2.2.7 Cancer .. 30 |
| | 3.2.3 Dermal Exposure .. 30 |
| | 3.2.3.1 Death 30 |
| | 3.2.3.2 Systemic Effects.. 30 |
| | 3.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects .. 31 |
| | 3.2.3.4 Neurological Effects . 31 |
| | 3.2.3.5 Reproductive Effects. 31 |
| | 3.2.3.6 Developmental Effects. 31 |
| | 3.2.3.7 Cancer .. 31 |
| | 3.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure. 31 |
| | 3.2.4.1 Death 31 |
| | 3.2.4.2 Systemic Effects.. 32 |
| | 3.2.4.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects .. 32 |
| | 3.2.4.4 Neurological Effects . 32 |
| | 3.2.4.5 Reproductive Effects. 32 |
| | 3.2.4.6 Developmental Effects. 32 |
| | 3.2.4.7 Cancer .. 32 |
| | 3.3 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVE CESIUM BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE |
| | 32 |
| | 3.3.1 Inhalation Exposure . 33 |
| | 3.3.1.1 Death 33 |
| | 3.3.1.2 Systemic Effects.. 34 |
| | 3.3.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects .. 34 |
| | 3.3.1.4 Neurological Effects . 35 |
| | 3.3.1.5 Reproductive Effects. 35 |
| | 3.3.1.6 Developmental Effects. 35 |
| | 3.3.1.7 Cancer .. 35 |
| | 3.3.2 Oral Exposure . 36 |
| | 3.3.2.1 Death 36 |
| | 3.3.2.2 Systemic Effects.. 37 |
| | 3.3.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects .. 39 |
| | 3.3.2.4 Neurological Effects . 39 |
| | 3.3.2.5 Reproductive Effects. 40 |
| | 3.3.2.6 Developmental Effects. 43 |
| | 3.3.2.7 Cancer .. 43 |
| | 3.3.3 External Exposure. 43 |
| | 3.3.3.1 Death 44 |
| | 3.3.3.2 Systemic Effects.. 44 |
| | 3.3.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects .. 45 |
| | 3.3.3.4 Neurological Effects . 45 |
| | 3.3.3.5 Reproductive Effects. 45 |
| | 3.3.3.6 Developmental Effects. 46 |
| | 3.3.3.7 Cancer .. 51 |
| | 3.3.4 Other Routes of Exposure. 51 |
| | 3.3.4.1 Death 52 |
| | 3.3.4.2 Systemic Effects.. 52 |
| | 3.3.4.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects .. 53 |
| | 3.3.4.4 Neurological Effects . 53 |
| | 3.3.4.5 Reproductive Effects. 53 |
| | 3.3.4.6 Developmental Effects. 53 |
| | 3.3.4.7 Cancer .. 54 |
| | 3.4 GENOTOXICITY 54 |
| | 3.5 TOXICOKINETICS.. 58 |
| | 3.5.1 Absorption 59 |
| | 3.5.1.1 Inhalation Exposure .. 59 |
| | 3.5.1.2 Oral Exposure .. 60 |
| | 3.5.1.3 Dermal Exposure 60 |
| | 3.5.2 Distribution .. 61 |
| | 3.5.2.1 Inhalation Exposure .. 61 |
| | 3.5.2.2 Oral Exposure .. 61 |
| | 3.5.2.3 Dermal Exposure 62 |
| | 3.5.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure..62 |
| | 3.5.3 Metabolism .. 63 |
| | 3.5.4 Elimination and Excretion 63 |
| | 3.5.4.1 Inhalation Exposure .. 63 |
| | 3.5.4.2 Oral Exposure .. 64 |
| | 3.5.4.3 Dermal Exposure 66 |
| | 3.5.4.4 Other Routes of Exposure..66 |
| | 3.5.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models 67 |
| | 3.6 MECHANISMS OF ACTION .. 86 |
| | 3.6.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms 86 |
| | 3.6.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity 88 |
| | 3.6.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations. 89 |
| | 3.7 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS.. 89 |
| | 3.8 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY. 90 |
| | 3.9 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT .. 93 |
| | 3.9.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Cesium. 94 |
| | 3.9.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Cesium 94 |
| | 3.10 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS. 95 |
| | 3.11 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE. 95 |
| | 3.12 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS .. 96 |
| | 3.12.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure. 96 |
| | 3.12.2 Reducing Body Burden 96 |
| | 3.12.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects 97 |
| | 3.13 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE .. 97 |
| | 3.13.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Cesium 97 |
| | 3.13.2 Identification of Data Needs100 |
| | 3.13.3 Ongoing Studies 109 |
| | 4. CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, and RADIOLOGICAL INFORMATION .. 111 |
| | 4.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY 111 |
| | 4.2 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES. 111 |
| | 5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL. 119 |
| | 5.1 PRODUCTION .. 119 |
| | 5.2 IMPORT/EXPORT .. 120 |
| | 5.3 USE.. 120 |
| | 5.4 DISPOSAL.. 121 |
| | 6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE .. 125 |
| | 6.1 OVERVIEW 125 |
| | 6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT.. 130 |
| | 6.2.1 Air . 134 |