Evaluation of microbial health risks associated with the reuse of

1,61

MB

source separated human urine

42

stron

3677

ID

Royal Institute of Technology

2005

rok

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 2

1.1 History 2

1.2 Nutrient content and volume of domestic wastewater 3

2. URINE DIVERSION 3

2.1 Urine diversion in Sweden 4

2.2 Source-separation of urine in other parts of the world 6

2.3 Ecological Sanitation 6

3. URINE AS A FERTILISER IN AGRICULTURE 7

3.1 Characteristics of diverted human urine 7

3.2 Collection and storage of the urine – developing countries 7

3.3 Urine as a fertiliser 8

3.4 Crops to fertilise 9

3.5 Dosage 9

3.6 Fertilising experiments 10

3.7 Acceptance 11

4. PATHOGENIC MICROORGANISMS IN URINE 11

5. FAECAL CONTAMINATION 13

5.1 Analysis of indicator bacteria to determine faecal contamination 14

5.2 Analysis of faecal sterols to determine faecal contamination 15

5.3 Discussion 16

6. PERSISTENCE OF MICROORGANISMS IN URINE 16

6.1 Survival of bacteria 17

6.2 Survival of protozoa 19

6.3 Survival of viruses 20

6.4 Discussion 20

7. MICROBIAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF URINE-DIVERTING SYSTEMS 21

7.1 Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment 21

7.2 Exposure scenarios – example from a developed country (Sweden) 21

7.3 Quantitative risks (Sweden) 22

7.4 Exposure scenarios – examples from a developing country 24

7.5 Discussion 25

7.5 Acceptable risk and risk minimisation 25

8. GUIDELINES FOR THE REUSE OF HUMAN URINE 26

9. SOCIAL ASPECTS ON URINE-DIVERTING SYSTEMS AND THE REUSE OF HUMAN URINE 27

9.1 Perceptions of urine and faeces 27

9.2 Perceptions and sanitation options 30

9.3 Management of systems and social sustainability 31

10. GENERAL DISCUSSION 33

10.1 Health risks 33

10.2 The present situation in developing countries 35

11. CONCLUSIONS 36

12. REFERENCES 37