abs

Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle

1,73

1896–2000

211

stron

3772

European Environment Agency

2001

rok

Contents

Preface 3

Acknowledgements 6

1. Introduction . 11

1.1. Late lessons from early warnings: an approach to learning from history 11

1.2. What is the ‘precautionary principle’? 13

1.3. An early use of the precautionary principle: London, 1854 14

1.4. Forestalling disasters: integrating science and public policy . 15

1.5. References . 16

2. Fisheries: taking stock 17

2.1. Early warnings 17

2.2. 19th century British fisheries . 17

2.3. Californian sardine fishery 1920s to 1942 . 19

2.4. Newfoundland cod 20

2.5. Precaution becomes explicit . 23

2.6. The ecosystem approach 25

2.7. Late lessons 26

2.8. References . 27

3. Radiation: early warnings; late effects

3.1. X-rays 31

3.2. Radioactivity and radioactive materials . 32

3.3. Early moves towards control of exposure . 33

3.4. The post-war watershed: justification, optimisation, limitation . 34

3.5. Conclusions 35

3.6. References . 36

4. Benzene: an historical perspective on the American and European occupational setting 38

4.1. Early warnings 38

4.2. Actions and inactions 39

4.3. Discussion . 42

4.4. Conclusions and lessons for the future . 46

4.5. References . 47

5. Asbestos: from ‘magic’ to malevolent mineral 52

5.1. Introduction 52

5.2. The first ‘early warnings’ of asbestosis and some responses . 53

5.3. Early warnings on asbestos cancers . 54

5.4. Early, devastating warnings about mesothelioma cancer . 55

5.5. Actions and inactions by regulatory authorities and others . 56

5.6. The costs and benefits of actions and inactions 58

5.7. What are the lessons of the asbestos story? . 59

5.8. References . 61

8 Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle 1896–2000

6. PCBs and the precautionary principle 64

6.1. Introduction 64

6.2. Growing evidence of persistence, presence and toxicity . 66

6.3. Action from industry and governments in the 1970s 66

6.4. Scientific understanding becomes more sophisticated . 67

6.5. Government action in the 1980s and 1990s . 69

6.6. Routes of environmental exposure 70

6.7. The most recent PCB accident 71

6.8. Conclusion . 71

6.9. References . 73

7. Halocarbons, the ozone layer and the precautionary principle 76

7.1. Overview 76

7.2. Early history 78

7.3. The 1930s — the CFC industry is born . 79

7.4. The 1970s — the seeds of doubt . 79

7.5. The Montreal Protocol and the ozone hole 80

7.6. Late lessons 82

7.7. References . 83

8. The DES story: long-term consequences of prenatal exposure 84

8.1. Introduction) . 84

8.2. Optimistic beginnings 84

8.3. Tragic consequences . 85

8.4. DES ineffective for prevention of miscarriage 86

8.5. Assessing the extent of the damage . 87

8.6. Lessons from the DES story 88

8.7. References . 90

9. Antimicrobials as growth promoters: resistance to common sense 93

9.1. Introduction 93

9.2. The first early warning 94

9.3. Subsequent action or inaction 94

9.4. Advantages and disadvantages of the use of growth promoters . 97

9.5. Conclusions and lessons for the future . 98

9.6. References . 99

10. Sulphur dioxide: from protection of human lungs to remote lake restoration 101

10.1. Dead fish, dying forests . 102

10.2. The 1985 CLRTAP Protocol and beyond 105

10.3. Late lessons 106

10.4. References . 108

11.MTBE in petrol as a substitute for lead 110

11.1. Introduction 110

11.2. Lead in petrol 110

11.3. The MTBE case . 110

11.4. The benefits of MTBE 111

11.5. The impacts of MTBE 111

11.6. Responses . 114

11.7. Present trends 115

11.8. Discussion in relation to the precautionary principle . 115

11.9. Conclusion . 120

11.10. References . 121

12. The precautionary principle and early warnings of chemical contamination of the Great Lakes

126

12.1. The first significant early warnings 126

12.2. Date and nature of subsequent action or inaction 127

12.3. Consequences of institutional responses 129

12.4. Costs and benefits . 130

12.5. Conclusions and lessons for the future . 131

12.6. References . 132

13. Tributyltin (TBT) antifoulants: a tale of ships, snails and imposex 135

13.1. Introduction 135

13.2. The emergence of the TBT problem . 135

13.3. Arcachon Bay . 136

13.4. UK harbours and coastal waters 137

13.5. A global pollutant . 138

13.6. Effectiveness of controls on small vessels . 138

13.7. The significance of seagoing vessels . 139

13.8. Progress towards a global phase-out 140

13.9. The question of alternatives . 141

13.10. Late lessons from the TBT story 141

13.11. Conclusions: precaution or retrospective action? . 142

13.12. References . 143

14. Hormones as growth promoters: the precautionary principle or a political risk assessment? 149

14.1. Introduction 149

14.2. Impacts of oestrogenic compounds on wildlife . 151

14.3. What were the uncertainties regarding the use of oestrogenic growth promoters for human

health? 152

14.4. Has the approach adopted by the European Commission proved to be sound? 153

14.5. Overall conclusions 154

14.6. References . 155

15. ‘Mad cow disease’ 1980s–2000: how reassurances undermined precaution 157

15.1. Introduction 157

15.2. A new cattle disease . 157

15.3. Initial decisions . 158

15.4. Expert advice and regulatory controls . 159

15.5. Constructing a house of cards 161

15.6. The failures and eventual collapse of the policy edifice 164

15.7. Conclusions 164

15.8. References . 166

10 Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle 1896–2000

16. Twelve late lessons 168

16.1. Introduction 168

16.2. Twelve late lessons 169

16.3. The wider implications of precaution 182

16.4. References . 189

17. Conclusions . 192

17.1. Late lessons from early warnings 193

Author biographies. 195

Index: Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle 1896–2000 . 200