| | Policy Interpretation Network on Children’s Health and |
| | 1,03 | | MB | Environment |
| | 175 | | stron |
| | 3872 | | ID | Directorate-General for the Environment, European Commission |
| | 2005 | | rok |
| | INDEX |
| | 1. Introduction 5 |
| | 1.1 What is PINCHE? 5 |
| | 1.2 Objectives of PINCHE 5 |
| | 1.3 Why children? 6 |
| | 1.4 Themes, compounds, exposures and regions 6 |
| | 1.4.1 Themes 6 |
| | 1.4.2 The compounds 7 |
| | 1.4.3 Studied exposures 9 |
| | 1.4.4 The regions 9 |
| | 1.5 Policy-science Interface 10 |
| | 2. Methodology 11 |
| | 2.1 Structure of the project 11 |
| | 2.2 Literature collection 11 |
| | 2.2.1 Collecting EU studies 11 |
| | 2.2.2 PINCHE database 12 |
| | 2.2.3 Reviews from environment and health organisations 14 |
| | 2.2.4 Additional literature 14 |
| | 2.3 Evaluation of literature 14 |
| | 2.4 Interpretation Framework 15 |
| | 2.5 Policy recommendations 15 |
| | 3. Exposure Assessment 16 |
| | 3.1 Exposure assessment 16 |
| | 3.2 Components of exposure 16 |
| | 3.3 Exposure to air pollutants 17 |
| | 3.4 Time-activity patterns 18 |
| | 3.5 Population of children in Europe 19 |
| | 3.6 Other issues 22 |
| | 3.7 Exposure assessment using biomarkers of exposure 22 |
| | 3.8 Uncertainties in exposure 22 |
| | 3.9 Theoretical framework for dealing with uncertainties 23 |
| | 4. Air pollution 26 |
| | 4.1 Outdoor air pollution 26 |
| | 4.1.1. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) 27 |
| | 4.1.2. Particulate matter (PM) 29 |
| | 4.1.3. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 32 |
| | 4.1.4. Ozone (O3) 33 |
| | 4.2 Formaldehyde 37 |
| | 4.3 Chlorination by-products 40 |
| | 4.4 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 44 |
| | 4.5 Cleaning products 48 |
| | 4.6 Biocontaminants 51 |
| | 4.6.1 Endotoxins 51 |
| | 4.6.2 Allergens 52 |
| | 4.6.3 Moulds 54 |
| | 4.7 Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) 57 |
| | 4.8 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 59 |
| | 4.9 Asbestos 63 |
| | 4 PINCHE Report Exposure |
| | 5. Neurotoxicants 64 |
| | 5.1 Mercury 64 |
| | 5.2 Lead 68 |
| | 5.3 Arsenic 72 |
| | 5.4 Cadmium 76 |
| | 5.5 Manganese 79 |
| | 5.6 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Dioxins 81 |
| | 5.7 Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) 86 |
| | 5.8 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 86 |
| | 5.9 Brominated Flame Retardants 86 |
| | 5.10 Pesticides 89 |
| | 6. Noise 92 |
| | 6.1 Classroom noise 92 |
| | 6.2 Transportation noise 94 |
| | 6.3 Sound levels in discotheques and leisure facilities 95 |
| | 6.4 Sound levels from personal audio player 96 |
| | 6.5 Noise from toys 97 |
| | 6.6 Impulse noise from firecrackers 98 |
| | 6.7 Noise in neonatal intensive care units 98 |
| | 7. Carcinogens 101 |
| | 7.1 Arsenic 101 |
| | 7.2 Asbestos 101 |
| | 7.3 Benzene 104 |
| | 7.4 Beryllium 107 |
| | 7.5 Cadmium 109 |
| | 7.6 Chromium 109 |
| | 7.7 Ethylene Oxide 111 |
| | 7.8 Nickel 113 |
| | 7.9 Solar and UV Radiation 115 |
| | 7.10 2,3,7,8 Tetra chloro dibenzo-p-dioxin 117 |
| | 7.11 Vinyl Chloride 117 |
| | 7.12 Coal Tar Pitches 119 |
| | 7.13 Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) 121 |
| | 7.14 Radon 121 |
| | 7.15 Ionising Radiation 125 |
| | 7.16 Acrylamide 129 |
| | 7.17 Benzo (a)pyrene 131 |
| | 7.18 1,3-Butadiene 131 |
| | 7.19 Formaldehyde 134 |
| | 7.20 N-nitrosodmiethylamine and n-nitrosodiethylamine 134 |
| | 7.21 Tetrachloroethylene 138 |
| | 7.22 Trichloroethylene 140 |
| | 7.23 Diesel engine exhaust 142 |
| | 7.24 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 146 |
| | 7.25 Pesticides 146 |
| | 8. Discussion and conclusions 147 |
| | 8.1 Discussion on methods used 147 |
| | 8.2 Collection of information 147 |
| | 8.3 Answering the questions of the Interpretation Framework 149 |
| | Annexes |