Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and

9,18
MB their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience

180
stron

3881
ID International Atomic Energy Agency

2006
rok

CONTENTS

1. SUMMARY . 1

1.1. Introduction. 1

1.2. Radioactive contamination of the environment . 2

1.2.1. Conclusions. 2

1.2.1.1. Radionuclide release and deposition2

1.2.1.2. Urban environment 2

1.2.1.3. Agricultural environment . 3

1.2.1.4. Forest environment 4

1.2.1.5. Aquatic environment. 4

1.2.2. Recommendations for future research and monitoring 4

1.2.2.1. General 4

1.2.2.2. Practical 5

1.2.2.3. Scientific . 5

1.2.2.4. Specific recommendations 5

1.3. Environmental countermeasures and remediation 6

1.3.1. Conclusions. 6

1.3.1.1. Radiological criteria6

1.3.1.2. Urban countermeasures 7

1.3.1.3. Agricultural countermeasures . 7

1.3.1.4. Forest countermeasures 8

1.3.1.5. Aquatic countermeasures . 8

1.3.2. Recommendations . 8

1.3.2.1. Countries affected by the Chernobyl accident 8

1.3.2.2. Worldwide9

1.3.2.3. Research . 9

1.4. Human exposure. 9

1.4.1. Conclusions. 10

1.4.2. Recommendations . 11

1.5. Radiation induced effects on plants and animals 12

1.5.1. Conclusions. 12

1.5.2. Recommendations for future research 13

1.5.3. Recommendations for countermeasures and remediation 13

1.6. Environmental and radioactive waste management aspects of the dismantling of the Chernobyl

shelter 13

1.6.1. Conclusions. 13

1.6.2. Recommendations for future actions . 14

Reference to Section 1. 15

2. INTRODUCTION . 16

2.1. Background . 16

2.2. Objectives of the Chernobyl Forum. 16

2.3. Method of operation and output of the Chernobyl Forum17

2.4. Structure of the report 17

References to Section 2 17

3. RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT. 18

3.1. Radionuclide release and deposition 18

3.1.1. Radionuclide source term . 18

3.1.2. Physical and chemical forms of released material . 20

3.1.3. Meteorological conditions during the course of the accident21

3.1.4. Concentration of radionuclides in air . 22

3.1.5. Deposition of radionuclides on soil surfaces . 23

3.1.6. Isotopic composition of the deposition 25

3.2. Urban environment 27

3.2.1. Deposition patterns 27

3.2.2. Migration of radionuclides in the urban environment . 28

3.2.3. Dynamics of the exposure rate in urban environments. 29

3.3. Agricultural environment . 29

3.3.1. Radionuclide transfer in the terrestrial environment 29

3.3.2. Food production systems affected by the accident 30

3.3.3. Effects on agriculture in the early phase. 30

3.3.4. Effects on agriculture in the long term phase. 32

3.3.4.1. Physicochemistry of radionuclides in the soil–plant system . 32

3.3.4.2. Migration of radionuclides in soil. 33

3.3.4.3. Radionuclide transfer from soil to crops. 34

3.3.4.4. Dynamics of radionuclide transfer to crops 36

3.3.4.5. Radionuclide transfer to animals . 38

3.3.5. Current contamination of foodstuffs and expected future trends 40

3.4. Forest environment 41

3.4.1. Radionuclides in European forests . 41

3.4.2. Dynamics of contamination during the early phase . 42

3.4.3. Long term dynamics of radiocaesium in forests . 43

3.4.4. Uptake into edible products . 44

3.4.5. Contamination of wood. 45

3.4.6. Expected future trends . 46

3.4.7. Radiation exposure pathways associated with forests and forest products 46

3.5. Radionuclides in aquatic systems . 47

3.5.1. Introduction 47

3.5.2. Radionuclides in surface waters 48

3.5.2.1. Distribution of radionuclides between dissolved and particulate phases48

3.5.2.2. Radioactivity in rivers 48

3.5.2.3. Radioactivity in lakes and reservoirs 50

3.5.2.4. Radionuclides in freshwater sediments 52

3.5.3. Uptake of radionuclides to freshwater fish. 53

3.5.3.1. Iodine-131 in freshwater fish 53

3.5.3.2. Caesium-137 in freshwater fish and other aquatic biota 53

3.5.3.3. Strontium-90 in freshwater fish 54

3.5.4. Radioactivity in marine ecosystems. 55

3.5.4.1. Distribution of radionuclides in the sea . 55

3.5.4.2. Transfers of radionuclides to marine biota . 56

3.5.5. Radionuclides in groundwater . 56

3.5.5.1. Radionuclides in groundwater: Chernobyl exclusion zone56

3.5.5.2. Radionuclides in groundwater: outside the Chernobyl exclusion zone58

3.5.5.3. Irrigation water58

3.5.6. Future trends . 58

3.5.6.1. Freshwater ecosystems . 58

3.5.6.2. Marine ecosystems . 60

3.6. Conclusions . 60

3.7. Further monitoring and research needed 61

References to Section 3 62

4. ENVIRONMENTAL COUNTERMEASURES AND REMEDIATION. 69

4.1. Radiological criteria 69

4.1.1. International radiological criteria and standards 69

4.1.2. National radiological criteria and standards71

4.2. Urban decontamination. 72

4.2.1. Decontamination research 73

4.2.2. Chernobyl experience 73

4.2.3. Recommended decontamination technologies . 74

4.3. Agricultural countermeasures75

4.3.1. Early phase . 75

4.3.2. Late phase 77

4.3.3. Countermeasures in intensive agricultural production . 78

4.3.3.1. Soil treatment . 79

4.3.3.2. Change in fodder crops grown on contaminated land80

4.3.3.3. Clean feeding . 80

4.3.3.4. Administration of caesium binders . 81

4.3.4. Summary of countermeasure effectiveness in intensive production 81

4.3.5. Countermeasures in extensive production . 81

4.3.6. Current status of agricultural countermeasures . 83

4.3.7. A wider perspective on remediation, including socioeconomic issues 83

4.3.8. Current status and future of abandoned land. 84

4.3.8.1. Exclusion and resettlement zones in Belarus . 84

4.3.8.2. Rehabilitation of contaminated lands in Ukraine . 85

4.3.8.3. Abandoned zones in the Russian Federation. 86

4.4. Forest countermeasures . 86

4.4.1. Studies on forest countermeasures . 87

4.4.2. Countermeasures for forests contaminated with radiocaesium 87

4.4.2.1. Management based countermeasures . 87

4.4.2.2. Technology based countermeasures 87

4.4.3. Examples of forest countermeasures89

4.5. Aquatic countermeasures . 90

4.5.1. Measures to reduce doses at the water supply and treatment stage 90

4.5.2. Measures to reduce direct and secondary contamination of surface waters91

4.5.3. Measures to reduce uptake by fish and aquatic foodstuffs 92

4.5.4. Countermeasures for groundwater . 93

4.5.5. Countermeasures for irrigation water . 93

4.6. Conclusions and recommendations . 93

4.6.1. Conclusions. 93

4.6.2. Recommendations . 94

4.6.2.1. Countries affected by the Chernobyl accident 94

4.6.2.2. Worldwide95

4.6.2.3. Research . 95

References to Section 4 96

5. HUMAN EXPOSURE LEVELS . 100

5.1. Introduction. 100

5.1.1. Populations and areas of concern. 100

5.1.2. Exposure pathways 100