| | Report on the World’s Oceans |
| | 1,02 | | MB |
| | 156 | | stron |
| | 3890 | | ID | Greenpeace International |
| | 1997 | | rok |
| | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| | 1. Introduction 4 |
| | 1.1 The Oceans and Ecological Services 4 |
| | 1.2 Ecological Services and Nominal Values 4 |
| | 1.3 Sustainability and Precaution 5 |
| | 2. The Precautionary Approach 7 |
| | 2.1 The Need for a Precautionary Approach 7 |
| | 2.2 A Precautionary Approach Defined 8 |
| | 3. Inputs of Polluting Substances . 9 |
| | 3.1 The Nature of Pollutants and their Sources 9 |
| | 3.2 Trace Metal Pollution . 11 |
| | 3.3 Organic Chemical Pollution 14 |
| | a) Sources of organic pollutants 14 |
| | b) Chemical complexity . 15 |
| | c) Organochlorine pollutants 16 |
| | i) PCBs 16 |
| | ii) The chlorinated dioxins and dibenzofurans. 17 |
| | iii) Other Organochlorine Chemicals . 19 |
| | d) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 22 |
| | e) Mechanisms of Action of Organic Pollutants 22 |
| | 3.4 Nutrient pollution . 23 |
| | a) Introduction . 23 |
| | b) Contribution of anthropogenic activities to marine nutrient budgets 24 |
| | c) Sources . 25 |
| | d) Consequences of enhanced nutrient loading 26 |
| | i) Changes in ambient nutrient concentrations and availability 26 |
| | iii) Impacts of eutrophication. 28 |
| | a) Anoxia . 29 |
| | b) Shifts in phytoplankton composition 29 |
| | c) Toxic algal blooms . 31 |
| | d) Potential impacts on higher trophic levels. 31 |
| | e) Extent of the impacts . 32 |
| | f) Existing Measures . 33 |
| | g) Overview 33 |
| | 3.5 Biological pollution .34 |
| | a) Sewage disposal into the marine environment 34 |
| | 3.6 Radioactive Pollution 35 |
| | a) Illegal Dumping and Accidental losses . 37 |
| | b) Discharges from Reprocessing . 37 |
| | c) Environmental Behaviour of Artificial Radionuclides 39 |
| | d) Accumulation and Persistence of Radionuclides . 40 |
| | e) Natural Radionuclides 41 |
| | 3.7 Pollution, Regulations, Controls and Progress 42 |
| | 4. Marine Capture Fisheries 43 |
| | 4.1 Current Fishing Activity 43 |
| | 4.2 Fisheries Modelling 46 |
| | 4.3 Fisheries Management 49 |
| | a) The North Sea Fish Stocks . 51 |
| | b) Canadian Cod Stocks . 53 |
| | c) Southern Bluefin Tuna . 55 |
| | d) Orange Roughy 60 |
| | 4.4 Ecosystem Impacts . 60 |
| | a) Ecosystem Interactions. 61 |
| | b) Physical Habitat Degradation . 63 |
| | c) Bycatch of Fish and Other Species . 64 |
| | i) Cetaceans 64 |
| | ii) Turtles . 65 |
| | iii) Birds. 66 |
| | iv) Fish and Discarded Bycatch. 68 |
| | e) Potential Impacts of Pollution on Fish Populations 69 |
| | 4.5 Alternative Management: The Precautionary Approach to Fisheries. 75 |
| | 5. Aquaculture 76 |
| | 5.1 The development of aquaculture 76 |
| | 5.2 Habitat loss and consequences for biodiversity 78 |
| | 5.3 Eutrophication – Organic and Nutrient Enrichment 79 |
| | 5.4 Energy and Water Consumption 81 |
| | 5.5 Use of Chemicals for Disease Control . 82 |
| | a) Antibiotics 82 |
| | b) Pesticides. 84 |
| | c) Other Chemicals . 85 |
| | 5.6 Impacts of Cultured Organisms on Wild Populations . 85 |
| | 5.7 Genetically Modified Organisms. 86 |
| | 5.8 Overview. 87 |
| | 6. Whales and Whaling .87 |
| | 7. Impacts of Shipping 90 |
| | a) Operational and Illegal Discharges . 90 |
| | b) Packaged Goods 91 |
| | c) Energy Use and Atmospheric Emissions. 92 |
| | d) Antifouling Paint and TBT. 92 |
| | e) Marine Litter and Debris 94 |
| | 7.2 Introduction of Alien Species. . 96 |
| | a) The Nature of Biological Invasions 96 |
| | i) Vectors for Alien Species 97 |
| | ii) The Consequences of Biological Invasions 97 |
| | a) Ecosystem effects 97 |
| | b) Human health effects. 98 |
| | b) Understanding biological invasions 98 |
| | c) Methods of Control 99 |
| | i) Pre-Invasion Control 99 |
| | a) The Use of an International Inventory 99 |
| | b) Shipboard methods 99 |
| | c) Changing ballast at sea 99 |
| | d) Other Shipboard Control Methods 100 |
| | ii) Post-Invasion Control100 |
| | a) Eradication or control of introduced species100 |
| | d) Overview101 |
| | 8. Operational Discharges from the Offshore Industry 102 |
| | 8.1 Introduction 102 |
| | 8.2 Discharge of drill cuttings 102 |
| | 8.3 Discharge of produced water103 |
| | 8.4 Use and discharge of production chemicals 103 |
| | 8.5 Regulation of the offshore industry.103 |
| | 9. Global Changes . 104 |
| | 9.1 Greenhouse Gases104 |
| | a) Impacts upon Ocean Ecosystems .106 |
| | b) Coral Bleaching and Climate Change 108 |
| | c) El-Niño Southern Oscillation.109 |
| | d) Sea Level Rise 111 |
| | e) Polar Systems112 |
| | i) Sea Ice and Glaciers 112 |
| | ii) Atmospheric temperatures.114 |
| | f) Arctic Systems & Thermohaline Circulation 115 |
| | g) Mitigation of Potential Impacts 119 |
| | i) The Carbon Logic .119 |
| | ii) Ocean Fertilisation 119 |
| | iii) Carbon Dioxide Dumping .120 |
| | a) Aquifer Injection120 |
| | b) Direct Ocean Disposal .120 |
| | 9.2 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion .121 |
| | a) Effects of UV-B Radiation on Planktonic Organisms .123 |
| | i) Bacterioplankton .123 |
| | ii) Phytoplankton .123 |
| | iii) Zooplankton and Vertebrates.124 |
| | iv) Higher organisms .124 |
| | b) Trophic Level Interactions and Ecosystem Impacts.124 |
| | c) Impacts on Biogeochemical Cycles.125 |
| | d) Overview125 |
| | 10. References 126 |