| | ExternE Externalities of Energy: Vol XX : National Implementation |
| | 2,83 | | MB |
| | 534 | | stron |
| | 4200 | | ID | European Commission Directorate-General for Research |
| | 2004 | | rok |
| | CONTENTS |
| | 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. 1 |
| | 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 |
| | 1.2 METHODOLOGY. 2 |
| | 1.3 RESULTS 3 |
| | 1.4 CONCLUSIONS 11 |
| | 2. INTRODUCTION. 15 |
| | 2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT. 15 |
| | 2.2 PUBLICATIONS FROM THE PROJECT 16 |
| | 2.3 STRUCTURE OF THIS VOLUME 17 |
| | 3. METHODOLOGY 19 |
| | 3.1 GENERAL. 19 |
| | 3.2 AGGREGATION. 39 |
| | 3.3 THE ECOSENSE MODEL. 43 |
| | 3.4 THE EXTERNE INFO SYSTEM. 50 |
| | 4. RESULTS FOR AUSTRIA 57 |
| | 4.1 INTRODUCTION 57 |
| | 4.2 GAS FUEL CYCLE. 58 |
| | 4.3 HYDRO FUEL CYCLE 67 |
| | 4.4 BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE. 73 |
| | 5. RESULTS FOR BELGIUM. 83 |
| | 5.1 INTRODUCTION 83 |
| | 5.2 COAL FUEL CYCLE. 85 |
| | 5.3 GAS FUEL CYCLE. 93 |
| | 5.4 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE 96 |
| | 5.5 AGGREGATION. 103 |
| | 5.6 A POLICY CASE STUDY ON ELECTRICITY TAXATION. 107 |
| | 5.7 CONCLUSIONS 110 |
| | 6. RESULTS FOR GERMANY. 111 |
| | 6.1 INTRODUCTION 111 |
| | 6.2 THE FOSSIL FUEL CYCLES 112 |
| | 6.3 THE NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE. 122 |
| | 6.4 THE PHOTOVOLTAIC FUEL CYCLE 127 |
| | 6.5 THE WIND FUEL CYCLE. 132 |
| | 6.6 BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE. 137 |
| | 6.7 AGGREGATION. 144 |
| | 6.8 POLICY CASE STUDIES. 151 |
| | 6.9 CONCLUSIONS 155 |
| | 7. RESULTS FOR DENMARK. 163 |
| | 7.1 INTRODUCTION 163 |
| | 7.2 THE NATURAL GAS FUEL CYCLE. 165 |
| | 7.3 THE BIOGAS FUEL CYCLE 169 |
| | 7.4 THE WIND FUEL CYCLES, OFFSHORE AND ON LAND. 176 |
| | 7.5 AGGREGATION. 180 |
| | 7.6 CONCLUSIONS 183 |
| | 8. RESULTS FOR SPAIN 185 |
| | 8.1 INTRODUCTION 185 |
| | 8.2 COAL FUEL CYCLE. 187 |
| | 8.3 NATURAL GAS FUEL CYCLE. |
| | 8.4 BIOMASS/LIGNITES FUEL CYCLE 197 |
| | 8.5 WIND FUEL CYCLE 203 |
| | 8.6 WASTE INCINERATION. 206 |
| | 8.7 AGGREGATION. 212 |
| | 8.8 POLICY CASE STUDY 216 |
| | 8.9 CONCLUSIONS 219 |
| | 9. RESULTS FOR FINLAND. 221 |
| | 9.1 INTRODUCTION 221 |
| | 9.2 COAL FUEL CYCLE. 225 |
| | 9.3 PEAT FUEL CYCLE. 235 |
| | 9.4 BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE. 243 |
| | 9.5 SUMMARY AND AGGREGATION 251 |
| | 10. RESULTS FOR FRANCE 255 |
| | 10.1 INTRODUCTION 255 |
| | 10.2 COAL FUEL CYCLE. 255 |
| | 10.3 NATURAL GAS FUEL CYCLE. 260 |
| | 10.4 OIL FUEL CYCLE 263 |
| | 10.5 BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE. 266 |
| | 10.6 WASTE INCINERATION. 270 |
| | 10.7 SUMMARY OF RESULTS 276 |
| | 10.8 FRENCH ELECTRICITY SECTOR: AGGREGATE IMPACT 279 |
| | 10.9 POLICY CASE STUDY- INCINERATORS AND CARS: A COMPARISON OF EMISSIONS AND |
| | DAMAGES. 284 |
| | 10.10 CONCLUSIONS 286 |
| | 11. RESULTS FOR GREECE 289 |
| | 11.1 INTRODUCTION 289 |
| | 11.2 LIGNITE FUEL CYCLE. 291 |
| | 11.3 OIL FUEL CYCLE 296 |
| | 11.4 NATURAL GAS FUEL CYCLE. 301 |
| | 11.5 BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE. 305 |
| | 11.6 HYDRO FUEL CYCLE 312 |
| | 11.7 WIND FUEL CYCLE 316 |
| | 11.8 AGGREGATION. 320 |
| | 11.9 POLICY CASE STUDY: SOCIAL COSTING AND THE COMPETITIVENESS OF RENEWABLE |
| | ENERGIES 325 |
| | 11.10 CONCLUSIONS 333 |
| | 12. RESULTS FOR IRELAND 337 |
| | 12.1 INTRODUCTION 337 |
| | 12.2 COAL FUEL CYCLE. 340 |
| | 12.3 PEAT FUEL CYCLE. 347 |
| | 12.4 AGGREGATION. 355 |
| | 12.5 CONCLUSIONS 360 |
| | 13. RESULTS FOR ITALY 363 |
| | 13.1 INTRODUCTION 363 |
| | 13.2 OIL FUEL CYCLE 365 |
| | 13.3 GAS FUEL CYCLE. 370 |
| | 13.4 HYDROELECTRIC FUEL CYCLE. 375 |
| | 13.5 WASTE INCINERATION. 381 |
| | 13.6 AGGREGATION. 383 |
| | 13.7 POLICY CASE STUDY 387 |
| | 13.8 CONCLUSIONS 388 |
| | 14. RESULTS FOR THE NETHERLANDS. 391 |
| | 14.1 INTRODUCTION 391 |
| | 14.2 METHODOLOGY. 391 |
| | 14.3 THE COAL FUEL CYCLE. 393 |
| | 14.4 THE NATURAL GAS FUEL CYCLE. 399 |
| | 14.5 THE BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE 404 |
| | 14.6 THE NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE. 413 |
| | 14.7 AGGREGATION. 418 |
| | 14.8 POLICY CASE STUDY 423 |
| | 14.9 CONCLUSIONS 431 |
| | 15. RESULTS FOR NORWAY 435 |
| | 15.1 INTRODUCTION 435 |
| | 15.2 GAS FUEL CYCLE. 437 |
| | 15.3 BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE. 450 |
| | 15.4 HYDRO FUEL CYCLE 456 |
| | 15.5 WIND FUEL CYCLE 461 |
| | 15.6 AGGREGATION. 470 |
| | 15.7 POLICY CASE STUDIES. 470 |
| | 16. RESULTS FOR PORTUGAL 473 |
| | 16.1 INTRODUCTION 473 |
| | 16.2 COAL FUEL CYCLE. 474 |
| | 16.3 NATURAL GAS FUEL CYCLE. 480 |
| | 16.4 BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE. 484 |
| | 16.5 HYDRO FUEL CYCLE 492 |
| | 16.6 AGGREGATION. 498 |
| | 16.7 POLICY CASE STUDY 502 |
| | 16.8 CONCLUSIONS 508 |
| | 17. RESULTS FOR SWEDEN. 513 |
| | 17.1 INTRODUCTION 513 |
| | 17.2 COAL FUEL CYCLE: VÄSTERÅS KVV 515 |
| | 17.3 BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE: HÄNDELÖVERKET. 520 |
| | 17.4 HYDRO FUEL CYCLE: KLIPPENS KRAFTSTATION 525 |
| | 17.5 PRELIMINARY AGGREGATION 532 |
| | 17.6 CONCLUSIONS 537 |
| | 18. RESULTS FOR UNITED KINGDOM 539 |
| | 18.1 INTRODUCTION 539 |
| | 18.2 COAL FUEL CYCLE. 540 |
| | 18.3 NATURAL GAS FUEL CYCLE. 546 |
| | 18.4 OIL FUEL CYCLE 551 |
| | 18.5 ORIMULSION FUEL CYCLE. 557 |
| | 18.6 BIOMASS FUEL CYCLE. 562 |
| | 18.7 WIND FUEL CYCLE 567 |
| | 18.8 CONCLUSIONS 570 |
| | 19. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 571 |
| | 19.1 SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR AIR POLLUTANTS. 571 |
| | 19.2 SUMMARY OF RESULTS PER FUEL CYCLE 573 |