Hexachlorobenzene - Sources, environmental fate and risk

0,94

MB

characterisation

120

stron

4421

ID

Euro Chlor

2005

rok

Table of Contents

Foreword 1

Summary 3

1 Introduction . 5

1.1 Aims and Scope of the Report . 5

1.2 Legal Status . 5

1.3 Background Information on HCB . 5

1.3.1 Structure 5

1.3.2 Synonyms and Trade Names 5

1.3.3 Physicochemical Properties 5

2 Sources of HCB in the Environment 7

2.1 Industrial Production 7

2.2 HCB Uses 7

2.3 By-Product Emissions 8

2.3.1 Chlorinated Solvent Production. 8

2.3.2 Pesticide By-Product . 10

2.4 Auxiliary Activity Releases . 12

2.4.1 The Metals Industry. 13

2.4.2 The Chlor-Alkali Industry. 14

2.4.3 Pulp and Paper Mills . 14

2.5 Combustion-Related Sources 14

2.5.1 Incineration 14

2.5.2 Cement Production 15

2.5.3 Uncontrolled Combustion 15

2.6 Leaks from Landfill Sites and Stockpiled Pesticides . 15

2.7 Metabolism of Lindane . 16

2.8 Secondary Sources 16

2.9 Historical Changes in Importance of Emission Sources 17

3 Environmental Loss Processes . 21

3.1 Degradation in Air. 21

3.2 Degradation in Water . 21

3.3 Degradation in Soils . 21

3.4 Degradation in Sediment 22

3.5 Degradation in Plants. 22

3.6 Degradation in Biota. 23

4 Factors Controlling Transfer of HCB around the World 25

4.1 Observed Occurrence of HCB in the Environment 25

4.2 Air 26

4.2.1 Deposition Processes 28

4.2.2 Rain . 28

4.2.3 Snow. 28

4.3 Water . 28

4.4 Sediments 30

4.5 Soil. 32

4.6 Vegetation 33

4.7 Biota 35

4.7.1 Plankton and Shellfish. 35

4.7.2 Fish . 36

4.7.3 Reptiles and Amphibians 37

4.7.4 Aquatic Birds . 37

4.7.5 Marine Mammals. 39

4.7.6 Terrestrial Mammals and Birds . 39

4.8 Foodstuffs 40

5 Reported Human Exposure Levels 43

5.1 Background Human Exposure Levels . 44

5.2 Elevated (Occupational) Human Exposure 45

6 Toxicity. 47

6.1 Acute Toxicity . 47

6.2 Subchronic Toxicity 47

6.3 HCB-Induced Porphyria . 47

6.4 Non-Hepatic Effects . 48

6.5 Genetic Toxicity 48

6.5.1 Developmental and Reproductive Toxicology 48

6.5.2 Immunotoxicity. 48

6.6 Neurotoxicity 49

6.7 Chronic Toxicity 49

6.8 Carcinogenicity 49

6.9 HCB Dioxin-like Activity 50

6.10 Health Guidelines . 50

7 Observations on the Environmental Fate of HCB 53

7.1 Geographical Trends in Observed Environmental HCB Concentrations 53

7.2 Global Environmental Budget 54

7.2.1 Air 54

7.2.2 Background Soil 54

7.2.3 Contaminated/Treated Soil 54

7.2.4 Vegetation. 56

7.2.5 Surface Seawater 56

7.2.6 Deep Seawater 57

7.2.7 Plankton 57

7.2.8 Coastal Shelf Sediments . 58

7.2.9 Deep Ocean Sediment 58

7.2.10 Dominant Environmental Sinks for HCB 59

7.2.11 Multimedia model predictions of HCB distribution . 59

7.3 Dominant loss processes for HCB in the environment 59

7.4 Temporal Trends In Observed Environmental HCB Concentrations 60

7.4.1 Air 60

7.4.2 Rain. 61

7.4.3 Snow. 61

7.4.4 Water . 61

7.4.5 Sediment. 61

7.4.6 Soil 62

7.4.7 Vegetation. 62

7.4.8 Biota 62

7.4.9 Humans . 64

7.4.10 Summary. 65

8 Re-emission of HCB from Soil 67

9 Conclusions. 69

10 References. 71