SAFE HANDLING AND STORAGE OF PLUTONIUM

0,54

MB

147

stron

4663

ID

International Atomic Energy Agency

2001

rok

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION . 1

1.1. Background . 1

1.2. Objective . 2

1.3. Scope 2

1.4. Structure 3

References 3

2. CURRENT AND FUTURE PLUTONIUM ACTIVITIES AND INVENTORIES . 5

2.1. Separation of civil plutonium from irradiated fuel . 5

2.2. Storage of separated civil plutonium . 5

2.3. Consumption of separated civil plutonium 6

2.4. Research and development: Emerging technologies 9

References 10

3. NUCLEAR, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PLUTONIUM . 11

3.1. Nuclear properties of plutonium 11

3.2. Physical and chemical properties of plutonium . 16

3.3. Chemical and radiolytic reactions . 22

References 23

4. PLUTONIUM IN THE ENVIRONMENT . 25

4.1. Sources of environmental plutonium . 25

4.2. Distribution of plutonium in the environment 26

4.3. Behaviour of plutonium in the environment . 27

References 29

5. PATHWAYS TO HUMANS AND THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PLUTONIUM . 30

5.1. Internal exposure to plutonium . 30

5.2. Entry of plutonium by inhalation . 35

5.3. Gastrointestinal absorption of plutonium 36

5.4. Penetration of plutonium through intact skin . 39

5.5. Distribution and retention of absorbed plutonium . 39

5.6. Reducing the dose from internally deposited plutonium 40

5.7. External exposure to plutonium . 42

References 42

6. LICENSING, CONTROLS AND REGULATORY LIMITS 45

6.1. Licensing . 45

6.2. Exemption levels 45

6.3. Occupational dose limits 45

6.4. Dose limit to the public . 47

6.5. Optimization of protection (ALARA) 48

6.6. Regulatory guides . 50

6.7. Criticality safety limits . 50

References 50

7. SAFETY ASPECTS OF DESIGN . 54

7.1. Safety assessment . 54

7.2. Containment . 55

7.3. Ventilation 59

7.4. Fire safety . 61

7.5. Prevention of explosions 65

7.6. Criticality safety 66

7.7. Removal of decay heat . 70

7.8. Prevention of mechanical failures or load drop . 70

7.9. Radiation shielding 70

7.10. Countermeasures for the loss of electrical power 71

7.11. Seismic safety 71

7.12. Aircraft crash hazard . 72

7.13. Minimization of radioactive waste 72

7.14. Design for decommissioning . 73

7.15. Feedback for safety improvements 73

References 75

8. OPERATIONAL SAFETY . 76

8.1. Effective management 76

8.2. Characterization during commissioning 76

8.3. Operating procedures 77

8.4. Training 77

8.5. Control of maintenance . 77

8.6. Control of modifications 78

8.7. Audit of operations 78

8.8. Radiation monitoring 79

8.9. Area monitoring 79

8.10. Individual monitoring 81

8.11. Environmental monitoring 85

8.12. Operational emergency procedures 85

8.13. Examples of incidents and practical responses . 87

References 89

9. SUMMARY 91

9.1. Safe handling of plutonium 91

9.2. Storage of plutonium 91

ANNEX I. EXAMPLES OF PLUTONIUM PLANT DESIGN 93

I–1. Introduction 93

I–2. Modern glove box design . 93

I–3. Conversion (finishing) 98

I–4. Packaging . 100

I–5. Storage . 101

I–6. Safety principles applied to MOX fabrication 103

References 109

ANNEX II. RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY DATA FOR PLUTONIUM HANDLING . 110

II–1. Introduction 110

II–2. Surface gamma dose rate of PuO2 and MOX 110

II–3. Attenuation factor for plutonium gamma radiation . 113

II–4. Neutron yields and dose rate from plutonium . 113

II–5. Internal exposure 116

II–6. Radiation exposure from criticality incidents . 117

References 119

ANNEX III. CRITICALITY SAFETY PARAMETERS 121

III–1. Introduction . 121

III–2. Plutonium systems . 121

III–3. Mixed (U, Pu) oxide systems . 124

III–4. Safety margins 126

III–5. Storage arrays 129

References 129

GLOSSARY 130

CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW 134