| | Introduction of Nuclear Desalination |
| | 1,41 | | MB |
| | 291 | | stron |
| | 4675 | | ID | International Atomic Energy Agency |
| | 2001 | | rok |
| | CONTENTS |
| | CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . 1 |
| | 1.1. Objective 1 |
| | 1.2. Scope 1 |
| | 1.3. Overview of nuclear desalination 2 |
| | 1.4. Technical, safety, economic and organizational aspects of Nuclear desalination . 4 |
| | 1.5. Steps to introduce nuclear desalination by Member States 8 |
| | PART I. OVERVIEW OF NUCLEAR DESALINATION . 15 |
| | CHAPTER 2. STATUS AND PROSPECTS OF NUCLEAR DESALINATION 17 |
| | 2.1. Introduction 17 |
| | 2.1.1. Global water availability 17 |
| | 2.1.2. Global water withdrawals 20 |
| | 2.1.3. Water quality . 20 |
| | 2.1.4. Importance of seawater desalination 23 |
| | 2.1.5. Energy sources for desalination . 25 |
| | 2.2. Potential role of nuclear reactors for seawater desalination . 25 |
| | 2.3. Nuclear plants in operation and under construction . 27 |
| | 2.4. Desalination plants in operation and under construction . 27 |
| | 2.5. Status of nuclear desalination experiences and activities . 32 |
| | 2.5.1. Experiences in Kazakhstan and Japan 32 |
| | 2.5.2. Ongoing national programmes and activities . 33 |
| | 2.5.3. IAEA activities . 36 |
| | 2.6. Prospects for nuclear desalination 37 |
| | CHAPTER 3. NUCLEAR ENERGY FOR DESALINATION 39 |
| | 3.1. Introduction 39 |
| | 3.2. Survey of nuclear reactors in operation and under construction 39 |
| | 3.2.1. Nuclear reactors for electricity generation . 40 |
| | 3.2.2. Nuclear reactors for co-generation . 41 |
| | 3.2.3. Nuclear reactors for heat generation 42 |
| | 3.3. Survey of nuclear reactors under development 42 |
| | 3.3.1. Design and development status of SMRs 42 |
| | 3.3.2. Reactors with other than water coolants . 45 |
| | 3.3.3. Barge mounted reactors . 46 |
| | 3.4. Elements of the nuclear fuel cycle 46 |
| | 3.4.1. Exploration, mining and milling of uranium 48 |
| | 3.4.2. Conversion and enrichment of uranium . 48 |
| | 3.4.3. Fuel element fabrication . 48 |
| | 3.4.4. Fuel management in reactor operation 49 |
| | 3.4.5. Spent fuel transport and storage . 49 |
| | 3.4.6. Reprocessing of spent fuel . 49 |
| | 3.4.7. Management and disposal of radioactive wastes . 50 |
| | 3.5. Availability of fuel (supply and demand) . 50 |
| | 3.5.1. Uranium resources 50 |
| | 3.5.2. Uranium conversion and enrichment services . 52 |
| | 3.5.3. Fuel fabrication . 53 |
| | 3.6. Radioactive waste management 53 |
| | 3.6.1. Categorization of wastes 53 |
| | 3.6.2. Solid waste 54 |
| | 3.6.3. Liquid wastes . 55 |
| | 3.6.4. Gaseous wastes . 55 |
| | CHAPTER 4. DESALINATION PROCESSES . 56 |
| | 4.1. Introduction 56 |
| | 4.2. Common desalination processes . 57 |
| | 4.2.1. Multistage flash . 57 |
| | 4.2.2. Multi-effect distillation . 59 |
| | 4.2.3. Vapour compression 61 |
| | 4.2.4. Reverse osmosis . 62 |
| | 4.3. Other technologies . 65 |
| | 4.3.1. Freezing . 65 |
| | 4.3.2. Ion exchange . 65 |
| | 4.3.3. Electrodialysis 65 |
| | 4.3.4. Low temperature vacuum evaporation 67 |
| | 4.4. Hybrid desalination systems 67 |
| | 4.4.1. Combination of RO with distillation processes 67 |
| | 4.4.2. Combination of vapour compression with distillation processes . 69 |
| | 4.4.3. Other combinations 69 |
| | 4.5. Comparison of commercial desalination processes . 70 |
| | 4.6. Technologies under development 70 |
| | 4.6.1. Long tube vertical evaporator . 70 |
| | 4.6.2. Orbital tube evaporators . 72 |
| | 4.6.3. Long tube MSF . 73 |
| | 4.6.4. Membrane distillation (MD) . 74 |
| | 4.6.5. Solar powered MED . 74 |
| | CHAPTER 5. COUPLING OF NUCLEAR REACTORS WITH DESALINATION SYSTEMS . 75 |
| | 5.1. Introduction 75 |
| | 5.2. Technical descriptions of various coupling concepts 75 |
| | 5.2.1. Desalination plant coupled to power reactors . 76 |
| | 5.2.2. Desalination plant coupled to heating reactors 76 |
| | 5.2.3. Desalination plant coupled to co-generation reactors . 80 |
| | 5.3. Design requirements for the couplings 84 |
| | 5.3.1. Safety 84 |
| | 5.3.2. Design life . 84 |
| | 5.3.3. Operational flexibility 85 |
| | 5.3.4. Reliability/availability 86 |
| | 5.3.5. Design limitations . 86 |
| | 5.4. Operating experience with nuclear desalination . 86 |
| | 5.4.1. Nuclear desalination systems at Aktau, Kazakhstan 86 |
| | 5.4.2. Nuclear desalination plants in Japan 88 |
| | 5.4.3. Nuclear desalination projects in India . 91 |
| | 5.5. Operating Experience with nuclear district heating systems 91 |
| | 5.6. Operating experience with nuclear process heat systems . 96 |
| | 5.7. Relevant issues of nuclear heat applications 98 |
| | PART II. SPECIAL ASPECTS AND CONSIDERATIONS RELEVANT TO THE INTRODUCTION OF |
| | NUCLEAR DESALINATION 101 |
| | CHAPTER 6. TECHNICAL ASPECTS 103 |
| | 6.1. Introduction 103 |
| | 6.2. Desirable technical features of nuclear desalination plants . 104 |
| | 6.2.1. Some aspects of decision making processes 104 |
| | 6.2.2. Importance of power to water ratio in selecting co-generation plants 105 |
| | 6.3. Considerations for coupling with nuclear reactors 106 |
| | 6.3.1. Backpressure and extraction schemes . 107 |
| | 6.3.2. Other schemes 107 |
| | 6.4. Technical protection measures against product water contamination, including monitoring and |
| | isolation . 111 |
| | 6.5. Reliability and flexibility requirements 112 |
| | 6.5.1. Reliability, availability and quality assurance . 112 |
| | 6.5.2. Flexibility . 114 |
| | 6.5.3. Transients . 115 |
| | 6.5.4. Design basis events 115 |
| | 6.6. Floating nuclear desalination plants 116 |
| | 6.7. Comparison of fossil and nuclear desalination 117 |
| | CHAPTER 7. SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 119 |
| | 7.1. Introduction 119 |
| | 7.2. Radiation hazards from nuclear desalination systems . 121 |
| | 7.2.1. Radiation hazards under normal operation . 121 |
| | 7.2.2. Radiation hazards from nuclear power plant accidents 122 |
| | 7.3. Safety issues in nuclear desalination 122 |
| | 7.3.1. Nuclear reactor safety 123 |
| | 7.3.2. Reactor safety considerations introduced by the addition of a desalination plant . 127 |
| | 7.4. Regulatory and licensing aspects . 130 |
| | 7.4.1. Regulatory codes and standards . 130 |
| | 7.4.2. Licensing procedures and stages 131 |
| | 7.4.3. Inspection and enforcement 131 |
| | 7.4.4. Decommissioning of nuclear desalination facilities 131 |
| | 7.5. Environmental effects of nuclear desalination systems 132 |
| | 7.5.1. Non-nuclear environmental effects . 132 |
| | 7.5.2. Nuclear environmental effects 133 |
| | CHAPTER 8. ECONOMICS OF NUCLEAR DESALINATION 135 |
| | 8.1. Introduction 135 |
| | 8.2 Product water cost and its components 137 |
| | 8.2.1. Main factors influencing overall product water cost . 138 |
| | 8.2.2. Design and planning parameters . 145 |
| | 8.3. Cost evaluation methodology . 148 |
| | 8.3.1. Single purpose plants . 148 |
| | 8.3.2. Co-generation plants . 148 |
| | 8.3.3. IAEA Desalination Economic Evaluation Programme (DEEP) 152 |
| | 8.3.4. Other international methods 154 |
| | 8.4. Reliability of cost estimates 155 |
| | 8.5. Economic comparison with fossil fuel based desalination 156 |
| | 8.6. Cost and price of water 158 |
| | 8.6.1. Value of desalted water 158 |
| | 8.6.2. Prices of water and power . 158 |
| | 8.6.3. Cash flow, payback period and rate of return . 159 |
| | 8.7. Financing 159 |
| | CHAPTER 9. NATIONAL REQUIREMENTS . 161 |
| | 9.1. Introduction 161 |