Protection of Seamount and Cold-Water Coral Ecosystems in

5,09

MB

Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction

111

stron

4908

ID

Universiteit van Amsterdam (UvA)

2005

rok

Table of contents

ABBREVIATIONS 8

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 10

1. INTRODUCTION. 17

1.1. FOCUS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 18

1.2. RESEARCH APPROACHES . 20

1.2.1. Integrated approach 20

1.2.2. Ecosystem approach . 21

1.2.3. Precautionary approach . 22

1.3. RESEARCH METHODS 24

1.4. STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT 24

2. THE THREAT OF BOTTOM TRAWLING TO SEAMOUNT AND COLDWATER CORAL

ECOSYSTEMS 26

2.1. INTRODUCTION . 26

2.2. PROBLEM-IN-CONTEXT ANALYSIS. 26

2.3. IMPACTS OF BOTTOM TRAWLING ON DEEP-SEA BIODIVERSITY. 29

2.3. IMPACTS OF BOTTOM TRAWLING ON DEEP-SEA BIODIVERSITY. 30

2.3.1. Biodiversity on seamounts and cold-water coral reefs. 30

Seamounts . 31

Cold water coral reefs . 33

2.3.2. Threats posed to seamounts and cold-water coral ecosystems by bottom trawling. 34

2.4. ACTORS INVOLVED IN BOTTOM TRAWLING . 37

2.5. CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO DEEP-SEA BIODIVERSITY DESTRUCTION . 42

2.5.1. Economic considerations of bottom trawling . 42

2.5.2. Limitations of the legal framework regulating bottom trawling in areas beyond national

jurisdiction . 44

2.5.3. Limitations of the institutional framework 48

2.6. CONCLUSION. 51

3. MEASURES FOR PROTECTING SEAMOUNTS AND COLD-WATER CORAL ECOSYSTEMS

AGAINST HIGH SEAS BOTTOM TRAWLING 53

3.1. INTRODUCTION . 53

3.2. SHORT-TERM ACTION THROUGH ACTIVITY-BASED MEASURES 53

3.2.1. Types of activity-based measures 54

3.2.2. Status of the international debate . 54

3.3. LONG-TERM ACTION THROUGH AREA-BASED MEASURES 57

3.3.1 Definition and types of marine protected areas. 57

3.3.2. Ecological aspects 58

3.3.3. Cost and benefits for fishing companies . 59

3.3.4. Management costs. 60

3.3.5. Status of the international debate . 62

3.4. CONCLUSION. 64

4. OPTIONS FOR ACTION ON THE GLOBAL LEVEL. 65

4.1. INTRODUCTION . 65

4.2. SHORT-TERM ACTION: UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION. 66

Option I: Moratorium on bottom trawling 66

Option II: Declaring bottom trawling unregulated . 69

Option III: UN Resolution on indirect actions 74

4.3. LONG-TERM ACTION: LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MARINE

PROTECTED AREAS . 75

Option I: Creating a new system. 76

Option II: Modifying the system under the Convention on Biological Diversity 81

Option III: Using the existing system by strengthening the role of regional fisheries management

organizations/arrangements and other regional agreements . 84

4.4. SUMMARY. 88

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 91

CONTACTS OF THE MEMBERS OF LIBERTAS MARI . 94

INTERVIEWS AND LECTURES 95

BIBLIOGRAPHY 96

APPENDIX I SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC, SOCIETAL AND COMMERCIAL INTERESTS AND

THEIR THREATS OF DEEP SEA HABITATS. 101

APPENDIX II HIGH SEAS SEAMOUNTS AROUND THE WORLD 102

APPENDIX III FISHES ASSOCIATED WITH SEAMOUNTS 107

APPENDIX IV IUCN GUIDELINES ON PROTECTED AREAS. 108

APPENDIX V TYPOLOGY OF MPAS. 110