Global Mercury Assessment - draft

1,89

MB

212

stron

5061

ID

UNEP Chemicals

2002

rok

Table of Contents

Summary 3

1 Introduction 4

1.1 Background and mandate 4

1.2 Submission of information for this report 5

1.3 Sources of information for this report 7

1.4 Scope and coverage in this report 7

1.5 Purpose of this report 8

2 Chemistry 9

2.1 Overview 9

2.2 Transformation and methylation processes 10

3 Toxicology 14

3.1 Overview 14

3.2 Methylmercury 14

3.3 Elemental and inorganic mercury 21

3.4 Interactions - protective effects of certain nutrients 26

4 Current exposure and impacts on human health 29

4.1 Overview 29

4.2 Evaluations of exposure levels causing risks 29

4.3 Routes of mercury exposure – a general overview 34

4.4 Exposure through diets of fish and marine mammals 38

4.5 Submitted data on mercury concentrations in fish 43

5 Impacts of mercury on the environment 49

5.1 Overview 49

5.2 Eco-toxicological effect levels 50

5.3 Ecosystems at risk and vulnerable species 54

5.4 Mercury concentrations in environmental media 62

6 Sources of mercury to the global environment 63

6.1 Overview 63

6.2 Natural sources of mercury 66

6.3 Anthropogenic sources of mercury 68

6.4 Pathways of mercury to – and in – the environment 80

7 Current production and use of mercury 90

7.1 Overview 90

7.2 Global production 92

7.3 Current use patterns 95

7.4 Particulars on chlor-alkali production and gold extraction 102

8 Prevention and control technologies and practices 107

8.1 Overview 107

8.2 Substitution 113

8.3 Reducing mercury emissions 120

8.4 Waste management practices 133

8.5 Mercury control costs and effectiveness 136

9 Initiatives for controlling releases and limiting use and exposure 145

9.1 Overview 145

9.2 National initiatives 146

9.3 International agreements and instruments 171

9.4 International organizations and programmes 182

9.5 Sub-regional and regional initiatives 189

10 Data gaps 196

11 Glossary, acronyms and abbreviations 197

References 201