abs

The role of anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic forcing

3,98

factors on the biology of exploited species.

348

stron

5387

DIFRES

2007

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Table of Contents

Annex 1. A review of the anthropogenic and nonanthropogenic factors affecting exploited species

1. Overview . 1

1.1. Introduction . 1

1.2. Dynamics of fish populations . 2

1.3. Recruitment . 3

1.4. Extrinsic drivers and other aspects of species’ biology . 4

1.5. Behaviour of individuals and populations . 5

2. Anthropogenic/non-anthropogenic factors’ effects . 5

2.1. Non-anthropogenic - Climate factors . 6

2.1.1. Temperature . 6

2.1.1.1. Min/max temperature . 6

2.1.1.2. Trends in temperatures . 7

2.1.1.3. Effects of temperature . 7

2.1.1.4. Thermal changes (e.g. due to outfalls/power stations) 15

2.1.1.5. Considerations . 15

2.1.2. Salinity . 15

2.1.2.1. Salinity in marine systems . 16

2.1.2.2. Trends in salinity . 17

2.1.2.3. Effects of salinity . 17

2.1.3. Acidification . 17

2.1.4. Turbidity . 19

2.1.5. Hydrography . 19

2.1.5.1. Wind/pressure . 20

2.1.5.2. Currents . 20

2.1.5.3. Upwelling 21

2.1.5.4. Oceanic and atmospheric interactions and indices 22

2.1.5.4.1. Considerations . 30

2.1.6. Ice . 30

2.1.7. UV effects . 31

2.2. Anthropogenic . 31

2.2.1. Physical loss/damage . 31

2.2.1.1. Cables/underwater pipelines . 31

2.2.1.2. Rigs -- gas and oil . 32

2.2.1.3. Artificial structures . 32

2.2.1.4. Wind farms . 33

2.2.1.5. Coastal development . 34

2.2.1.6. Recreational activities . 35

2.2.1.7. Explosives . 36

2.2.1.8. Aggregate extraction . 36

2.2.1.9. Altered freshwater inflow. 37

2.2.2. Pollution . 38

2.2.2.1. Toxic Contamination . 38

2.2.2.2. Non-toxic contamination . 43

2.2.3. Biological Disturbance . 48

2.2.3.1. Introduction on non-indigenous spp. 48

2.2.3.2. Introduction of microbial pathogens . 49

2.2.4. Fishing . 50

2.2.4.1. Catches of targeted species (and non-target) . 50

2.2.4.1.1. Generic effects of fishing on populations/stocks 51

2.2.4.2. Fishing mortality . 54

2.2.4.2.1. By-catch . 55

2.2.4.2.2. Discards . 57

2.2.4.2.3. Ghost fishing . 61

2.2.4.2.4. Non - adherence to fisheries management regulations 62

2.2.4.3. Other influences 64

2.2.4.3.1. Fish aggregation devices (FADs) 64

2.3. Current management using extrinsic factors or using the ecosystem approach in setting

objectives 65

2.3.1. The Barents Sea and the Norwegian Sea . 65

2.3.2. Groundfish stock assessments in the gulf of Alaska 66

2.3.3. Kittiwake/sandeel interactions in the North Sea (ICES area IV). 67

2.3.4. ENSO and fisheries. . 68

Annex 2.

3.1 North East Atlantic- subsections: North Sea RAC area 69

3.1.1. Description of the region . 69

3.1.1.1. Characterisation of the physio-chemical environment 69

3.1.1.2. Hydrology . 69

3.1.1.3. Substrate types . 70

3.1.2. Characterisation of the biological environment . 70

3.1.3. Identification of priority species . 71

3.1.3.1. Cod . 71

3.1.3.2. Plaice . 72

3.1.3..3. Sandeel . 73

3.2.3.4. Nephrops . 74

3.1.4. Effects of identified anthropogenic and nonanthropogenic factors the region 75

3.1.5. Non-anthropogenic influences from oceanographic and local hydrographic fluctuations

3.1.6. Preliminary identification of main drivers in each region (ranked) 76

Annex 3.

43. Baltic RAC area . 80

4.1. Description of the region . 80

4.1.1. Characterisation of the physio-chemical environment 80

4.1.2. Characterisation of the biological environment . 80

4.1.3. Identification of priority species . 80

4.1.3.1. Cod . 81

4.1.3.2. Flounder . 82

4.1.3.3. Plaice . 83

4.1.3.4. Turbot . 84

4.1.3.5. Herring . 84

4.1.3.6. Sprat . 85

4.1.3.7 Salmon . 86

4.1.3.8 Sea trout . 86

4.2. Summary . 87

Annex 4.

5. Iberian Sea (within the south-western waters RAC area) (IPIMAR 88

5.1. Description of the region . 88

5.2. Characterisation of the physiochemicalenvironment 88

5.2.1. Hydrology . 88

5.2.2. Environmental factors . 89

5.2.3. Substrate types . 91

5.3. Characterisation of the biological environment . 91

5.4. Identification of the priority species . 92

5.4.1. Fishing activities . 92

5.5. Effects of identified non-anthropogenic an anthropogenic factors 95

5.5.1. Non-anthropogenic factors . 95

5.5.1.1. Climate factors . 95

5.5.1.1.1. Temperature . 95

5.5.1.1.2. Trends in chlorophyll a . 95

5.5.1.1.3. Winds and currents . 97

5.5.1.1.4. NAO index/GSNW . 97

5.5.1.2. Biological factors . 98

5.5.1.2.1. Trophic interactions . 98

5.5.1.2.2. Harmful algal blooms (HABs) . 98

5.5.2. Anthropogenic . 102

5.5.2.1. Physical loss/damage of habitats . 102

5.5.2.1.1. Artificial structures (reefs) . 102

5.5.2.1.2. Aggregate extraction and dredging . 102

5.5.2.2. Pollution . 103

5.5.2.2.1. Toxic contamination . 103

5.5.2.2.1.1. Metals . 103

5.5.2.2.1.2. Antifouling biocides . 112

5.5.2.2.1.3. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) . 116

5.5.2.2.1.4. Hydrocarbons . 120

5.5.2.2.1.5. Pesticides . 122

5.5.2.2.1.6. Biomarkers of exposure . 124

5.5.2.2.2. Fishing-environment interactions . 126

5.5.2.2.3. Summary of the effects of pollution on the ecosystem 127

5.5.2.3. Non-toxic contamination . 128

5.5.2.3.1. Nutrient enrichment . 128

5.5.2.3.2. Litter . 129

5.5.2.4 Biological disturbance . 129

5.5.2.4.1. Shipping . 129

5.5.2.5. Fishing . 129

5.5.2.5.1. By-catch . 129

5.5.2.5.2. Discards . 129

5.5.2.5.3. Illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing 130

5.5.2.5.4. Catches of target species . 131

5.5.2.6. Aquaculture . 131

5.6. Preliminary identification of main drivers . 132

Annex 5.

6. Mediterranean Sea RAC area. (UBARI) . 133

6.1. Description of the region . 133

6.2. Characterisation of the physio-chemical environment . 135

6.3. Hydrology . 149

6.4. Atmospheric changes . 151

6.5. Substrate types . 153