Occurrence and Monitoring Document for the Final Ground

1,53

MB

Water Rule

160

stron

5456

ID

UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

2006

rok

Contents

Chapter 1

Introduction 1.1

Background 1-1

1.2 Ground Water Rule Statutory Authority 1-1

1.3 Purpose of the Occurrence and Monitoring Document 1-2

1.4 Ground Water, Surface Water, and Distribution System Regulatory Requirements 1-3

1.5 Document Organization 1-4

Chapter 2 : Public Health Risk

2.1 Introduction 2-1

2.2 Microbial Contaminants in Ground Water 2-3

2.2.1 Waterborne Pathogenic Bacteria 2-3

2.2.1.1 Pathogenic Bacteria 2-5

2.2.1.2 Pathogenic Viruses 2-7

2.2.1.3 Other Pathogens 2-9

2.2.1.4 Chronic Health Effects Resulting from Waterborne Disease 2-10

2.2.2 Fecal Contamination Indicators 2-11

2.2.2.1 Bacterial Indicators 2-12

2.2.2.2 Viral Indicators 2-12

2.2.3 Bacterial Host Range for Bacteriophage Indicators of Fecal Contamination 2-14

2.3 Waterborne Disease Outbreaks 2-14

2.4 Total Coliform-Positive Samples and TCR Violations in Ground Water Systems 2-18

2.5 Conclusions 2-21

Chapter 3 : Sources of Fecal Contamination of Ground Water and Wells

3.1 Background 3-1

3.2 On-Site Wastewater Systems(Septic Tanks and Drainfields) 3-2

3.3 Wastewater Collection Systems 3-6

3.4 Wastewater Effluent and Biosolids Disposal 3-8

3.5 Stormwater Infiltration 3-9

3.6 Municipal Solid Waste 3-11

3.7 Animal Sources of Contamination 3-11

3.8 Storage and Distribution System Contamination 3-13

3.9 Conclusions 3-15

Chapter 4 : Microbial Contaminant Fate and Transport

4.1 Background 4-1

4.2 Factors Affecting the Fate and Transport of Viruses in the Subsurface 4-2

4.3 Factors Affecting the Fate and Transport of Bacteria in the Subsurface 4-11

4.4 Conditions At and Near the Wellhead 4-15

4.5 Waterborne Disease Outbreaks Resulting from Subsurface Microbial Transport to PWS Wells in

Sensitive Aquifers 4-18

4.6 Conclusions 4-20

Chapter 5 : Microbial Contaminant Monitoring Methods

5.1 Background 5-1

5.2 Monitoring Bacterial Indicators of Fecal Contamination 5-2

5.2.1 Total Coliforms (not a fecal indicator in the GWR) 5-2

5.2.2 E. coli 5-3

5.2.2.1 Enzyme Substrate Methods 5-3

5.2.2.2 Membrane Filter Methods 5-3

5.2.2.3 E. coli Tests Where Total Colform Detection is an Intermediate Step 5-4

5.2.3 Enterococcus 5-4

5.3 Monitoring Viral Indicators of Fecal Contamination 5-5

5.4 Monitoring Enteric Viral Pathogens 5-5

5.5 Conclusions 5-7

Chapter 6 : Occurrence Analysis

6.1 Background 6-1

6.2 Specific Studies on Occurrence of Pathogens and Indicators 6-1

6.2.1 EPA/American Water Works Association Research Foundation (EPA/AWWARF) Study

(Lieberman et al. 2002, Fout et al. 2003) 6-10

6.2.2 The American Water Works Association Research Foundation (AWWARF) and American

Water Works Service Company (AWWSCo) (AWWARF/AWWSCo) Study 6-11

6.2.3 Pennsylvania Non-Community Well Study (Lindsey et al. 2002) 6-14

6.2.4 Southeast Michigan (Francy et al. 2004) 6-15

6.2.5 New Jersey (Atherholt et al. 2003) 6-16

6.2.6 Missouri Ozark Aquifer Study #1 (Davis and Witt 2000) 6-16

6.2.7 Missouri Ozark Aquifer Study #2 (Femmer 2000) 6-17

6.2.8 Wisconsin Migrant Worker Camp Study (USEPA et al. 1998a) 6-18

6.2.9 New England Study (Doherty et al. 1998) 6-18

6.2.10 Three State PWS Study (Wisconsin) (Wisconsin Department of Health 2000) 6-19

6.2.11 Three State PWS Study (Maryland) (Banks et al. 2001) 6-19

6.2.12 Three State PWS Study (Maryland) (Banks and Battigelli 2002) 6-20

6.2.13 Three State PWS Study (Minnesota) (Minnesota Department of Health 2000) 6-21

6.2.14 EPA Vulnerability Study (USEPA 1998b) 6-21

6.2.15 Montana (Miller and Meek 1996) 6-22

6.2.16 Karim et al. 2003, 2004 6-23

6.2.17 Method 1601 and 1602 Field Testing (USEPA 2006c) 6-23

6.2.18 La Crosse, Wisconsin (Borchardt et al. 2004) 6-24

6.2.19 De Borde 1995 6-25

6.2.20 Missouri Alluvial Aquifer Study (Vaughn 1996) 6-25

6.2.21 US-Mexico Border Study (Pillai 1997) 6-26

6.2.22 Oahu, Hawaii Study (Fujioka and Yoneyama 2001) 6-26

6.2.23 Southeastern Minnesota Residential Wells (Goyal et al. 1989) 6-27

6.2.24 USGS Regional Aquifer Study (Francy et al. 2000) 6-28

6.2.25 Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Assisted Midwest Well Study (CDC Center for

Environmental Health 1998) 6-28

6.2.26 New Mexico Border Health Office—Water Quality of Domestic Wells in Dona Ana County

(Daniel B. Stephens & Associates, Inc. 1996) 6-29

6.3 Hydrogeologically Sensitive Wells 6-29

6.4 Estimation of Occurrence of Indicators and Enteric Viral Pathogens 6-30

6.4.1 Viral and Fecal Indicator Hit Rates 6-31

6.5 Estimates of Well Vulnerability 6-44

6.5.1 Background 6-44

6.5.2 Estimating Percentage of Wells in Vulnerability Categories 6-44

6.6 Estimates of Occurrence and Concentrations 6-45

6.6.1 Use of Indicator Occurrence for Assessment and Triggered Monitoring .6-45

6.6.2 Pathogen Concentration Analysis .6-48

References .. R-1

Appendix A: Viral Pathogen Monitoring Methods Under Development Occurrence and Monitoring

Document for the Final Ground Water Rule iii October 2006