| | Exposure and Human Health Reassessment of 2,3,7,8- |
| | 13,7 | | MB | Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-Dioxin (TCDD) and Related Compounds - |
| | 459 | | stron | Part I: Estimating Exposure to Dioxin-Like Compounds - Volume |
| | 1: Sources of Dioxin-Like Compounds in the United States |
| | 5918 | | ID | UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY |
| | 2004 | | rok |
| | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| | 1. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY 1-1 |
| | 1.1. BACKGROUND 1-1 |
| | 1.2. DEFINITION OF DIOXIN-LIKE COMPOUNDS 1-3 |
| | 1.3. TOXIC EQUIVALENCY FACTORS 1-5 |
| | 1.4. OVERVIEW OF SOURCES AND EMISSIONS INVENTORY METHODOLOGY 1-10 |
| | 1.4.1. Overview and Organization of Source Analysis 1-10 |
| | 1.4.2 Quantitative Inventory of Sources 1-12 |
| | 1.5. GENERAL FINDINGS OF THE EMISSIONS INVENTORY 1-17 |
| | 1.6. GENERAL SOURCE OBSERVATIONS 1-20 |
| | 1.7. CONGENER PROFILES OF CDD/CDF SOURCES 1-25 |
| | 2. MECHANISMS OF FORMATION OF DIOXIN-LIKE COMPOUNDS DURING COMBUSTION OF |
| | ORGANIC MATERIALS 2-1 |
| | 2.1. MECHANISM 1: CDD/CDF CONTAMINATION IN FUEL AS A SOURCE OF COMBUSTION |
| | STACK EMISSIONS 2-3 |
| | 2.2. MECHANISM 2: FORMATION OF CDD/CDFs FROM PRECURSOR COMPOUNDS 2-5 |
| | 2.3. MECHANISM 3: THE DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF CDDS/CDFS DURING COMBUSTION OF |
| | ORGANIC MATERIALS 2-12 |
| | 2.4. THE ROLE OF CHLORINE IN THE FORMATION OF CDDS AND CDFS IN COMBUSTION |
| | SYSTEMS 2-20 |
| | 2.4.1. Review of Laboratory-Scale Studies 2-20 |
| | 2.4.2. Review of Full Scale Combustion Systems 2-24 |
| | 2.5. POTENTIAL PREVENTION OF CDD/CDF FORMATION IN COMBUSTION SYSTEMS 2-27 |
| | 2.6. THEORY ON THE EMISSION OF POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 2-28 |
| | 2.7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 2-30 |
| | 2.7.1. Mechanisms of Formation of Dioxin-Like Compounds 2-30 |
| | 2.7.2. Role of Chlorine 2-31 |
| | 2.7.3. General Conclusion 2-33 |
| | 3. COMBUSTION SOURCES OF CDD/CDF: WASTE INCINERATION 3-1 |
| | 3.1. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE INCINERATION 3-2 |
| | 3.1.1. Description of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Technologies 3-2 |
| | 3.1.2. Characterization of MSWI Facilities in Reference Years 1995 and 1987 3-7 |
| | 3.1.3. Estimation of CDD/CDF Emissions from MSWIs 3-8 |
| | 3.1.4. Summary of CDD/CDF (TEQ) Emissions from MSWIs for 1995 and 1987 3-10 |
| | 3.1.5 Congener Profiles of MSWI Facilities 3-11 |
| | 3.1.6 Estimated CDD/CDFs in MSWI Ash 3-11 |
| | 3.1.7 Recent EPA Regulatory Activities 3-14 |
| | 3.2. HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION 3-15 |
| | 3.2.1. Furnace Designs for Hazardous Waste Incinerators 3-16 |
| | 3.2.2. APCDs for Hazardous Waste Incinerators 3-18 |
| | 3.2.3. Estimation of CDD/CDF Emission Factors for Hazardous Waste Incinerators 3-20 |
| | 3.2.4. Emission Estimates for Hazardous Waste Incinerators 3-22 |
| | 3.2.5. Recent EPA Regulatory Activities 3-23 |
| | 3.2.6. Industrial Boilers and Furnaces Burning Hazardous Waste 3-24 |
| | 3.2.7. Solid Waste from Hazardous Waste Combustion 3-25 |
| | 3.3. MEDICAL WASTE INCINERATION 3-25 |
| | 3.3.1. Design Types of MWIs Operating in the United States 3-26 |
| | 3.3.2. Characterization of MWIs for Reference Years 1995 and 1987 3-27 |
| | 3.3.3. Estimation of CDD/CDF Emissions from MWIs 3-29 |
| | 3.3.4. EPA/OAQPS Approach for Estimating CDD/CDF Emissions from MWIs 3-30 |
| | 3.3.4.1. EPA/OAQPS Approach for Estimating Activity Level 3-30 |
| | 3.3.4.2. EPA/OAQPS Approach for Estimating CDD/CDF Emission Factors 3-31 |
| | 3.3.4.3. EPA/OAQPS Approach for Estimating Nationwide CDD/CDF TEQ Air Emissions 3-32 |
| | 3.3.5. AHA Approach for Estimating CDD/CDF Emissions from MWIs 3-33 |
| | 3.3.6. EPA/ORD Approach for Estimating CDD/CDF Emissions from MWIs 3-34 |
| | 3.3.6.1. EPA/ORD Approach for Classifying MWIs and Estimating Activity Levels 3-34 |
| | 3.3.6.2. EPA/ORD Approach for Estimating CDD/CDF Emission Factors 3-36 |
| | 3.3.7. Summary of CDD/CDF Emissions from MWIs 3-37 |
| | 3.3.8. Recent EPA Regulatory Activities 3-40 |
| | 3.4. CREMATORIA 3-40 |
| | 3.5. SEWAGE SLUDGE INCINERATION 3-42 |
| | 3.5.1. Emission Estimates from Sewage Sludge Incinerators 3-43 |
| | 3.5.2. Solid Waste from Sewage Sludge Incinerators 3-45 |
| | 3.6. TIRE COMBUSTION 3-45 |
| | 3.7. COMBUSTION OF WASTEWATER SLUDGE AT BLEACHED CHEMICAL PULP MILLS 3-46 |
| | 3.8. BIOGAS COMBUSTION 3-47 |
| | 4. COMBUSTION SOURCES OF CDD/CDF: POWER/ENERGY GENERATION 4-1 |
| | 4.1. MOTOR VEHICLE FUEL COMBUSTION 4-1 |
| | 4.1.1. Tailpipe Emission Studies 4-2 |
| | 4.1.2. Tunnel Emission Studies 4-6 |
| | 4.1.3. National Emission Estimates 4-9 |
| | 4.2. WOOD COMBUSTION 4-16 |
| | 4.2.1. Residential Wood Combustion 4-17 |
| | 4.2.2. Industrial Wood Combustion 4-20 |
| | 4.2.3. Solid Waste from Wood Combustion 4-25 |
| | 4.3. OIL COMBUSTION 4-30 |
| | 4.3.1. Residential/Commercial Oil Combustion 4-31 |
| | 4.3.2. Utility Sector and Industrial Oil Combustion 4-31 |
| | 4.4. COAL COMBUSTION 4-33 |
| | 4.4.1. Utilities and Industrial Boilers 4-34 |
| | 4.4.2. Residential/Commercial Coal Combustion 4-36 |
| | 4.4.3. Solid Wastes from Coal Combustion 4-38 |
| | 5. COMBUSTION SOURCES OF CDD/CDF: OTHER HIGH TEMPERATURE |
| | SOURCES 5-1 |
| | 5.1. CEMENT KILNS AND LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE KILNS 5-1 |
| | 5.1.1. Process Description of Portland Cement Kilns 5-1 |
| | 5.1.2. Cement Kilns That Burn Hazardous Waste 5-3 |
| | 5.1.3. Air Pollution Control Devices Used on Cement Kilns 5-4 |
| | 5.1.4. CDD/CDF Emission Factors for Cement Kilns 5-5 |
| | 5.1.5. National Estimates of CDD/CDF Emissions from Cement |
| | Kilns 5-8 |
| | 5.1.6. Recent EPA Regulatory Activities 5-10 |
| | 5.1.7. Solid Waste from Cement Manufacturing 5-10 |
| | 5.2. ASPHALT MIXING PLANTS 5-12 |
| | 5.3. PETROLEUM REFINING CATALYST REGENERATION 5-14 |
| | 5.4. CIGARETTE SMOKING 5-19 |
| | 5.5. PYROLYSIS OF BROMINATED FLAME RETARDANTS 5-22 |
| | 5.6. CARBON REACTIVATION FURNACES 5-23 |
| | 5.7. KRAFT BLACK LIQUOR RECOVERY BOILERS 5-26 |
| | 5.8. OTHER IDENTIFIED SOURCES 5-28 |
| | 6. COMBUSTION SOURCES OF CDD/CDF: MINIMALLY CONTROLLED AND |
| | UNCONTROLLED COMBUSTION SOURCES 6-1 |
| | 6.1. COMBUSTION OF LANDFILL GAS 6-1 |
| | 6.2. ACCIDENTAL FIRES 6-2 |
| | 6.2.1. Soot and Ash Studies 6-3 |
| | 6.2.2. Fume and Smoke Studies 6-5 |
| | 6.2.3. Data Evaluation 6-6 |
| | DRAFT--DO NOT QUOTE OR CITE I-iv December 2003 |
| | TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) |
| | 6.3. LANDFILL FIRES 6-9 |
| | 6.4. FOREST AND BRUSH FIRES 6-11 |
| | 6.5 |
| | BACKYARD BARREL BURNING 6-15 |
| | 6.5.1. Emission Estimates from Backyard Barrel Burning 6-16 |
| | 6.5.2. Barrel Burning Ash Composition 6-18 |
| | 6.6. UNCONTROLLED COMBUSTION OF POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBs) 6-18 |
| | 6.7. VOLCANOES 6-19 |
| | 7. METAL SMELTING AND REFINING SOURCES OF CDD/CDF 7-1 |
| | 7.1. PRIMARY NONFERROUS METAL SMELTING/REFINING 7-1 |
| | 7.1.1. Primary Copper Smelting and Refining 7-1 |
| | 7.1.2. Primary Magnesium Smelting and Refining 7-2 |
| | 7.1.3. Primary Nickel Smelting and Refining 7-4 |
| | 7.1.4. Primary Aluminum Smelting and Refining 7-5 |
| | 7.1.5. Primary Titanium Smelting and Refining 7-6 |
| | 7.2. SECONDARY NONFERROUS METAL SMELTING 7-6 |
| | 7.2.1. Secondary Aluminum Smelters 7-7 |
| | 7.2.2. Secondary Copper Smelters 7-10 |
| | 7.2.3. Secondary Lead Smelters 7-16 |
| | 7.3. PRIMARY FERROUS METAL SMELTING/REFINING 7-19 |
| | 7.3.1. Sinter Production 7-19 |
| | 7.3.2. Coke Production 7-22 |
| | 7.4 SECONDARY FERROUS METAL SMELTING/REFINING 7-22 |
| | 7.5. FERROUS FOUNDRIES 7-24 |
| | 7.6. SCRAP ELECTRIC WIRE RECOVERY 7-26 |
| | 7.7. DRUM AND BARREL RECLAMATION FURNACES 7-28 |
| | 7.8. SOLID WASTE FROM PRIMARY/SECONDARY IRON/STEEL MILLS/FOUNDRIES 7-29 |
| | 8. CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING AND PROCESSING SOURCES 8-1 |
| | 8.1. BLEACHED CHEMICAL WOOD PULP AND PAPER MILLS 8-1 |
| | 8.2. MANUFACTURE OF CHLORINE, CHLORINE DERIVATIVES, AND METAL CHLORIDES 8-5 |
| | 8.2.1. Manufacture of Chlorine 8-5 |
| | 8.2.2. Manufacture of Chlorine Derivatives and Metal Chlorides 8-6 |
| | 8.3. MANUFACTURE OF HALOGENATED ORGANIC CHEMICALS 8-6 |
| | 8.3.1. Chlorophenols 8-7 |
| | 8.3.2. Chlorobenzenes 8-10 |
| | 8.3.3. Chlorobiphenyls 8-12 |
| | 8.3.4. Polyvinyl Chloride 8-16 |