Global Mercury Assessment

5,51

MB

270

stron

5942

ID

UNEP Chemicals

2002

rok

Table of Contents

Key findings of the report iii

Summary of the report 1

1 Introduction 23

1.1 Background and mandate 23

1.2 Submission of information for this report 24

1.3 Sources of information for this report 26

1.4 Scope and coverage in this report 26

1.5 Purpose of this report 27

2 Chemistry 28

2.1 Overview 28

2.2 Mercury species and transformation in the atmosphere 30

2.3 Mercury species and transformation in aquatic environments 33

2.4 Mercury species and transformation in soil 34

3 Toxicology 35

3.1 Overview 35

3.2 Methylmercury 37

3.3 Elemental and inorganic mercury 44

3.4 Interactions – possible confounding effects of certain nutrients 49

4 Current mercury exposures and risk evaluations for humans 50

4.1 Overview 50

4.2 Evaluations of exposure levels causing risks 51

4.3 Routes of mercury exposure – a general overview 56

4.4 Exposure through diets of fish and marine mammals 61

4.5 Submitted data on mercury concentrations in fish 67

5 Impacts of mercury on the environment 73

5.1 Overview 73

5.2 Eco-toxicological effect levels 75

5.3 Ecosystems at risk and vulnerable species 78

5.4 Mercury concentrations in environmental media 86

6 Sources and cycling of mercury to the global environment 87

6.1 Overview 87

6.2 Natural sources of mercury 93

6.3 Anthropogenic sources of mercury 94

6.4 Pathways of mercury to – and in – the environment 105

7 Current production and use of mercury 119

7.1 Overview 119

7.2 Global production 122

7.3 Current use patterns 124

7.4 Particulars on chlor-alkali production and gold extraction 132

8 Prevention and control technologies and practices 138

8.1 Overview 138

8.2 Substitution 143

8.3 Reducing mercury releases 150

8.4 Waste management practices 166

8.5 Mercury control costs and effectiveness 170

9 Initiatives for controlling releases and limiting use and exposure 181

9.1 Overview 181

9.2 National initiatives 182

9.3 International agreements and instruments 205

9.4 International organizations and programmes 216

9.5 Sub-regional and regional initiatives 224

10 Data and information gaps 231

10.1 National research and information needs 231

10.2 Data gaps of a general, global character 232

10.3 Development of Policy Tools 236

11 Options for addressing any significant global adverse impacts 238

11.1 Overview 238

11.2 Conclusions with respect to significant global adverse impacts of mercury 239

11.3 Conclusions with respect to possible options for addressing any significant global impacts of

mercury 241

11.4 Additional aspects with respect to possible options for addressing any significant global

impacts of mercury 246

11.5 Proposals for immediate action to be considered by the UNEP Governing Council 249

12 Glossary, acronyms and abbreviations 251

References 254