Extent of environmental contamination by naturally occurring

1,36

MB

radioactive material (NORM) and technological options for

208

stron

mitigation.

5953

ID

International Atomic Energy Agency

2003

rok

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION . 1

1.1. Background . 1

1.2. Objectives 3

1.3. Scope 4

1.4. Related IAEA publications . 6

1.5. Organization 6

2. NATURALLY OCCURRING RADIONUCLIDES 7

3. PROCESSES ENHANCING CONCENTRATIONS AND

THE POTENTIAL FOR PUBLIC EXPOSURE TO NORM . 7

3.1. Enhanced concentrations versus enhanced exposure potential 7

3.2. Technologically enhanced concentrations 10

3.3. Enhanced potential for human exposure to NORM . 11

4. FUELS . 12

4.1. Oil and gas 12

4.1.1. Introduction 12

4.1.2. Processes . 13

4.1.3. Residues . 15

4.1.4. Management of residues 18

4.1.5. Residue management technologies . 21

4.2. Coal mining and combustion 22

4.2.1. Introduction 22

4.2.2. Processes . 25

4.2.3. Residues . 26

4.2.4. Management of residues 31

5. WATER . 33

5.1. Geothermal energy production 33

5.1.1. Introduction 33

5.1.2. Processes . 34

5.1.3. Residues . 36

5.1.4. Management of residues 39

5.1.5. Environmental impacts . 40

5.2. Drinking water treatment . 41

5.2.1. Introduction 41

5.2.2. Processes . 43

5.2.3. Residues . 44

5.2.4. Management of residues 45

5.2.5. Environmental impacts . 47

5.3. Wastewater treatment 48

5.4. Industrial process waters 48

5.5. Irrigation . 49

6. METALS . 49

6.1. Mining and processing methods 49

6.1.1. Open pit mining . 49

6.1.2. Underground mining . 50

6.1.3. Solution mining . 51

6.1.4. Beneficiation . 52

6.1.5. Mining and milling residues . 52

6.2. Mine waters . 54

6.3. Aluminium . 55

6.3.1. Introduction 55

6.3.2. Processes . 57

6.3.3. Residues . 58

6.3.4. Management of residues 58

6.4. Iron . 59

6.4.1. Introduction 59

6.4.2. Processes . 59

6.4.3. Residues . 60

6.5. Copper . 62

6.5.1. Introduction 62

6.5.2. Processes . 63

6.5.3. Residues . 64

6.6. Gold . 65

6.6.1. Introduction 65

6.6.2. Processes . 66

6.6.3. Residues and their management . 67

6.6.4. Radionuclide contents 70

6.6.5. Environmental impacts . 71

6.7. Mineral sands and related industries 71

6.7.1. Introduction 71

6.7.2. Occurrence . 73

6.7.3. Processes . 74

6.7.4. Residues . 78

6.7.5. Radionuclide contents 83

6.7.6. Remediation 83

7. INDUSTRIAL MINERALS . 87

7.1. Phosphate mining and fertilizer production 87

7.1.1. Introduction 87

7.1.2. Basic processes in the phosphate industry . 87

7.1.3. Processing of phosphate ore: Acid leaching 88

7.1.4. Elemental phosphorus production with the thermal process . 96

7.1.5. Environmental impact of residues 98

7.1.6. Concentrations of radionuclides in fertilizers 99

7.1.7. Utilization of by-products and residues . 101

7.1.8. Measures for improvement and remediation . 102

7.2. Clay, ceramics and building materials . 103

7.2.1. Introduction 103

7.2.2. Processing 106

7.2.3. Residues . 106

8. USE OF VARIOUS RADIO-ELEMENTS 108

8.1. Uranium 108

8.1.1. Introduction 108

8.1.2. Mining processes 109

8.1.3. Residues . 109

8.2. Radium 111

8.3. Thorium 111

9. VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 113

9.1. Sulphuric acid production by burning pyrites 113

9.1.1. Introduction 113

9.1.2. Processes . 113

9.1.3. Residues . 114

9.2. Burning of shales to extract oil . 116

9.3. River and harbour dredging . 116

9.4. Wastes from the decommissioning of industrial facilities . 117

10. REGULATORY ASPECTS . 117

11. IMPACTS OF NORM CONTAINING RESIDUES . 119

12. SELECTED MANAGEMENT AND REMEDIATION

STRATEGIES AND TECHNOLOGIES 121

12.1. Principles . 121

12.2. Cleanup technologies . 127

12.2.1. Containment 128

12.2.2. Immobilization 130

12.2.3. Dilution/dispersion 132

12.2.4. Natural attenuation 133

12.2.5. Separation 135

12.2.6. Treatment of waters and effluents 135

12.3. Cleaner technologies . 136

12.3.1. Tools 136

12.3.2. Reuse/recycle . 138

12.3.3. Avoidance at source . 139

13. SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACT OF MANAGEMENT AND REMEDIATION MEASURES 140

14. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 142

APPENDIX I: TIN MINING AND RELATED PROCESSES IN MALAYSIA 145

APPENDIX II: TITANIUM PROCESSING . 151

APPENDIX III: RARE EARTH ELEMENT PROCESSING IN MALAYSIA 158

APPENDIX IV: NIOBIUM PROCESSING IN BRAZIL 164

REFERENCES . 173

GLOSSARY . 195

CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW 197