TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR IONIZING RADIATION

6,13
MB

432
stron

5962
ID Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

2001
rok

CONTENTS

FOREWORD . v

QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS . vii

CONTRIBUTORS . ix

PEER REVIEW . xi

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

LIST OF TABLES xix

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT 1

1.1 WHAT IS IONIZING RADIATION? 1

1.2 HOW DOES RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL ENTER AND SPREAD THROUGH THE

ENVIRONMENT? . 7

1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO IONIZING RADIATION? 9

1.4 HOW CAN IONIZING RADIATION ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY? . 13

1.5 HOW CAN IONIZING RADIATION AFFECT MY HEALTH? 15

1.6 HOW CAN IONIZING RADIATION AFFECT CHILDREN? . 16

1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION? . 17

1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO

IONIZING RADIATION? . 18

1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO PROTECT

HUMAN HEALTH? . 19

1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION? 21

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION . 23

2.1 INTRODUCTION 23

2.2 HISTORY, BACKGROUND INFORMATION, AND SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING

RADIATION . 25

2.2.1 Historical Perspective on Ionizing Radiation . 25

2.2.2 Basic Information on Ionizing Radiation 31

2.2.3 Principles of Radioactive Transformation . 34

2.2.4 Interaction of Radiation with Matter . 37

2.2.5 Characteristics of Emitted Radiation . 39

2.2.5.1 Alpha Radiation 39

2.2.5.2 Beta Radiation . 40

2.2.5.3 Gamma Radiation . 41

2.2.6 Estimation of Energy Deposition in Human Tissues . 41

2.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF IONIZING RADIATION DOSIMETRY . 43

2.3.1 Dose Units . 43

2.3.2 Dosimetry Models . 44

2.3.3 Terms Used in Radiation Safety Practice and Regulation . 46

2.4 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION 51

2.4.1 Radiation Effects at the Cellular Level . 53

2.4.2 Radiation Effects at the Organ Level . 55

2.4.3 Acute and Delayed Somatic Effects 55

2.4.3.1 Acute Effects . 55

2.4.3.2 Delayed Effects . 56

2.4.4 Genetic Effects 59

2.4.5 Teratogenic Effects 59

2.4.6 Internal Exposure to Ionizing Radiation 60

2.4.6.1 Inhalation 60

2.4.6.2 Ingestion 62

2.4.6.3 Dermal 62

2.4.7 External Exposure to Ionizing Radiation 63

2.5 MEASURING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SOURCES OF IONIZING RADIATION 63

2.5.1 Internal Radiation Measurements 64

2.5.2 External Radiation Measurements . 70

2.5.3 Field Radiation and Contamination Surveys . 72

2.5.3.1 Field Measurements of Ionizing Radiation 72

2.5.3.2 Laboratory Analysis of Environmental Samples 77

2.6 CONCLUSIONS . 79

2.7 OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION 79

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION 81

3.1 INTRODUCTION 81

3.2 HEALTH EFFECTS FROM EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION . 83

3.2.1 Acute (Immediate and Non-Carcinogenic) Effects from Ionizing Radiation Exposure . 89

3.2.1.1 Gastrointestinal Effects . 101

3.2.1.2 Hematological and Lymphoreticular Effects 104

3.2.1.3 Reproductive Effects 109

3.2.1.4 Teratogenic/Embryotoxic Effects 112

3.2.1.5 Central Nervous System (CNS) Effects . 121

3.2.1.6 Respiratory and Cardiovascular Effects . 122

3.2.1.7 Ocular Effects . 130

3.2.1.8 Dermal Effects . 132

3.2.1.9 Genotoxic Effects 137

3.2.2 Children’s Susceptibility . 152

3.2.3 Carcinogenic Effects from Ionizing Radiation Exposure . 155

3.2.3.1 Introduction . 155

3.2.3.2 Nuclear Detonations of 1945 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan 165

3.2.3.3 Human Exposures to 226Ra and 228Ra: The Radium Dial Painters 170

3.2.3.4 Human Exposures to 224Ra via Injection . 173

3.2.3.5 Other Human Cancer Studies . 176

3.2.3.6 Laboratory Animal Reports . 180

3.3 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDS 191

3.4 CONCLUSIONS 194

4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS . 195

4.1 PALOMARES, SPAIN . 195

4.2 GOIANIA, BRAZIL 197

4.3 THULE, GREENLAND . 199

4.4 ROCKY FLATS, COLORADO . 200

4.5 THREE MILE ISLAND, PENNSYLVANIA 202

4.6 CHERNOBYL, UKRAINE 204

4.7 KYSHTYM 208

4.8 WINDSCALE, U.K. 208

4.9 TOMSK . 209

4.10 LOST INDUSTRIAL OR MEDICAL SOURCES . 210

4.11 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDS 211

4.12 CONCLUSIONS 211

4.13 OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION . 212

5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS . 213

5.1 INTRODUCTION . 213

5.2 EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECTS ON DNA 215

5.3 INTERACTIONS OF IONIZING RADIATION WITH DNA . 217

5.4 EFFECTS ON OTHER CELLULAR MACROMOLECULES . 222

5.5 MECHANISMS OF CARCINOGENESIS 224

5.6 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDS 228

5.7 SUMMARY 228

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION 231

6.1 OVERVIEW 231

6.2 COSMIC RADIATION EXPOSURE 232

6.3 TERRESTRIAL RADIATION EXPOSURE . 234

6.3.1 Coal Production 235

6.3.2 Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production 236

6.3.3 Phosphate Rock Products . 236

6.3.4 Sand . 237

6.3.5 Hot Springs and Caves 238

6.4 NATURAL INTERNAL EXPOSURE . 238

6.4.1 Inhalation . 239

6.4.2 Ingestion 241

6.4.3 Dermal . 242

6.5 X RAY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE EXPOSURES . 242

6.6 EXPOSURE FROM CONSUMER PRODUCTS . 253

6.7 EXPOSURE FROM OTHER SOURCES . 254

6.7.1 Exposure from the Nuclear Fuel Cycle 255

6.7.2 Japanese Atomic Bomb Exposure 259

6.7.3 Exposure from Nuclear Weapons Testing 262

6.7.3.1 Atmospheric Testing 266

6.7.3.2 Underground Testing 269

6.7.4 Occupational Exposure 270

6.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE . 272

6.9 CONCLUSIONS 272

7. REGULATIONS . 273

8. LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL . 293

9. GLOSSARY 335

10. REFERENCES . 351

APPENDICES

A. ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS . A-1

B. USER'S GUIDE . B-1

C. ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS . C-1

D. INDEX D-1