Depleted uranium: Sources, Exposure and Health Effects

2,62

MB

221

stron

6242

ID

World Health Organization

2001

rok

Preface

Executive summary

1 Introduction 1

2 Sources and properties of depleted uranium and uranium 3

2.1 Uranium 3

2.2 Depleted uranium 6

2.3 Summary 8

3 Uranium in the environment 11

3.1 Air 12

3.2 Water 13

3.3 Soil 15

3.4 Mobility of uranium in soil and water 16

3.5 Food 18

3.6 Other sources in the human diet 19

3.6.1 Cooking and serving containers 19

3.6.2 Uranium in dust and soil 19

3.7 Summary 21

4 Industrial, commercial and military uses of uranium 23

4.1 Historical uses 23

4.2 Current applications 25

4.3 Summary 28

5 Factors influencing routes of intake and exposure 29

5.1 Introduction 29

5.2 Exposure via inhalation 30

5.3 Exposure via ingestion 32

5.3.1 Staple foods 33

5.3.2 Drinking water 36

5.3.3 Soil and dust 37

5.4 Dermal contact 39

5.5 Workplace exposure 40

5.6 Summary 41

6 Case studies and exposure scenarios 43

6.1 Case studies 43

6.1.1 Potential exposure from air crashes 43

6.1.2 Military uses 45

6.2 Environmental exposure scenarios 53

6.2.1 Soil 53

6.2.2 Water 54

6.2.3 Plants 55

6.2.4 Animals 56

6.3 Human exposure scenarios 56

6.4 Summary 59

7 Behaviour of uranium in the body 61

7.1 Introduction 61

7.2 Biodistribution and toxico-kinetics 61

7.3 Ingestion 62

7.4 Inhalation 63

7.5 Injury, insult and dermal sorption 64

7.6 Excretion and elimination 64

7.7 Accumulation 65

7.8 Summary 66

8 The chemical toxicity of uranium 67

8.1 Introduction 67

8.2 Toxicity in experimental animals and humans 68

8.2.1 Experimental animals 68

8.2.2 Implanted depleted uranium fragments 72

8.2.3 Dermal absorption 72

8.2.4 Humans 73

8.3 In-vitro studies 75

8.4 Derivation of a tolerable intake for uranium 76

8.4.1 Soluble uranium compounds 76

8.4.2 Uranium compounds with limited solubility 79

8.4.3 Uranium types practically insoluble in water 79

8.4.4 Other uranium compounds 79

8.5 Uncertainties of chemical risk assessment 79

8.6 Summary 80

9 Health effects due to the presence of radioactivity 81

9.1 Mechanisms and background 81

9.2 Dose limits 83

9.3 External radiation exposure 84

9.4 Internal exposure 85

10 Biokinetics for uranium after internal exposure 87

10.1 Introduction 87

10.2 Inhalation dose coefficients and annual intake limits 87

10.3 Biokinetics of Type F, M and S compounds of uranium after inhalation. 90

10.3.1 Acute exposure 91

10.3.2 Chronic intake 94

10.4 Material specific biokinetic behaviour of inhaled uranium oxides 95

10.4.1 Acute exposure 97

10.4.2 Chronic exposure 101

10.5 Ingestion coefficients and annual intake limits for adult members of the public 103

10.6 Wound contamination 103

10.7 Summary 103

11 Monitoring for internal exposure to depleted uranium 105

11.1 External monitoring of the chest 105

11.2 Urine and faecal monitoring 108

11.2.1 Fluorimetry 109

11.2.2 Alpha spectrometry 109

11.2.3 Mass spectrometry 110

11.3 Wound monitoring 111

11.4 Monitoring for individuals potentially exposed to depleted uranium aerosols. 112

11.5 Monitoring for those with health effects attributed to exposure to depleted uranium 112

11.6 Summary 113

12 Biokinetics of uranium species from the standpoint of nephrotoxicty 115

12.1 Inhalation of uranium. 115

12.2 Ingestion of uranium in drinking water and foods 118

12.3 Relationship between kidney content and urinary excretion 118

12.4 Modelled kidney concentrations resulting from WHO standards. 120

12.4.1 Oral consumption at the TI (soluble compounds) 120

12.4.2 Ingestion at the WHO drinking water guideline value 120

12.4.3 Inhalation at the TI for Type F (soluble) 121

12.4.4 Inhalation at the TI for Type M (moderately soluble) compounds 121

12.4.5 Inhalation at the TI for Type S (insoluble) compounds 121

12.5 Summary 121

13 Protective measures, health monitoring, and medical management 123

13.1 Background information 123

13.1.1 Public exposure 123

13.1.2 Occupational exposure 124

13.2 Protective measures 124

13.2.1 Locality-based protective measures 125

13.2.2 Environment-based protective measures 125

13.2.3 Medical-based protective measures 125

13.2.4 Occupational measures 126

13.3 Preventative actions 127

13.3.1 Air 127

13.3.2 Children 128

13.3.3 Concerned individuals 128

13.3.4 Contaminated items 128

13.3.5 Drinking water 128

13.3.6 Exposed skin 128

13.3.7 Food 128

13.3.8 Impacted areas 128

13.3.9 Metal fragments, depleted uranium munitions, scrap metal and souvenirs 128

13.4 Environmental monitoring 129

13.4.1 Radiation surveys 129

13.4.2 Chemical contamination surveys 129

13.5 Health assessment 129

13.5.1 Medical diagnosis 130

13.5.2 Medical monitoring 132

13.5.3 Treatment of human contamination 133

14 Health standards, guidelines and recommendations 135

14.1 Generic 135

14.2 Drinking water 137

14.3 Food 138

14.4 Soil 138

14.5 Air 139

15 Summary, Conclusions and Research Needs 141

15.1 Summary 141

15.1 Conclusions 147

15.2 Depleted uranium research needs 148

Annex 1 Process of uranium enrichment process 151

Annex 2 Radiological dose due to other nuclides 153

Annex 3 Uranium in the environment, food and reference data 155

Annex 4 ICRP Biokinetic models 165

Annex 5 Chemical toxicity of uranium: Occupational exposure standards after inhalation and the

impact of ICRP biokinetic models 175