Protecting the Diversity of the Depths: Strengthening the

5,06
MB International Law Framework

488
stron

6444
ID University of Sydney

2006
rok

Table of contents—full

Preface ii

Table of contents—abbreviated vii

Table of contents—full viii

Acknowledgments xiii

Abbreviations xvii

List of Figures xxiv

List of Tables xxvi

Table of Treaties, Instruments and Declarations xxvii

Table of Cases xxxii

Chapter 1 The Nature of the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The Juridical Extent of Maritime Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 3

1.3 The Physical Characteristics of the Open Ocean and the Deep Sea Environments 7

1.3.1 Marine Biological Divisions of the Ocean 8

1.3.2 Biogeographic Divisions of the Ocean 11

1.3.3 Seafloor Topography 13

1.4 Deep Sea Habitats 15

1.4.1 Seamounts 15

1.4.2 Hydrothermal Vents 17

1.4.3 Cold Seeps and Pockmarks 20

1.4.4 Deep Sea Trenches 21

1.4.5 Deep Sea Coral Reefs 23

1.5 Threats to the Marine Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 26

1.5.1 Threats Associated with Marine Living Resource Exploitation 27

1.5.2 Threats Associated with Maritime Transport 29

1.5.3 Threats Associated with Deep Seabed Mining 32

1.5.4 Threats Associated with Bioprospecting and Marine Scientific Research 34

1.6 Analysis of the International Law Framework 38

1.7 Conclusions 37

Chapter 2 The Development of Global Governance Principles for Maritime Areas Beyond National

Jurisdiction 40

2.1 Introduction 40

2.2 The High Seas Regime 42

2.2.1 Invalidity of Sovereignty Claims over the High Seas 43

2.2.2 Freedoms of the High Seas 44

2.2.3 Flag State Jurisdiction 49

2.2.4 Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas 55

2.3 The Deep Seabed Mining Regime 58

2.4 Conclusions 63

Chapter 3 The Development of an International Law Framework to Protect and Preserve the Marine

Environment 65

3.1 Introduction 65

3.2 Establishing a Framework 66

3.1.1 1972 Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment 66

3.2.1.1 Marine Pollution 67

3.2.1.2 Conservation and Management of Marine Resources 70

3.2.1.3 Protection of the Environment Beyond National Jurisdiction 72

3.2.1.4 Legacy of the Stockholm Conference 76

3.1.2 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) 77

3.2.2.1 Part XII – General Provisions 79

3.2.2.2 Prescriptive Jurisdiction Over Pollution of the Marine Environment Beyond National

Jurisdiction 83

3.2.2.2.1 Land Based Sources of Marine Pollution 84

3.2.2.2.2 Pollution from Seabed Activities 84

3.2.2.2.3 Pollution from Dumping 85

3.2.2.2.4 Pollution from Vessels 86

3.2.2.2.5 Pollution From or Through the Atmosphere 88

3.2.2.3 Enforcement Jurisdiction over Pollution of the Marine Environment Beyond National

Jurisdiction 89

3.2.2.3.1 Flag State Enforcement of International Rules and Standards on Vessel Source Pollution

90

3.2.2.3.2 Port State Enforcement of International Rules and Standards on Vessel Source Pollution

93

3.2.2.3.3Intervention in Maritime Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 95

3.2.2.4 Safeguards 96

3.2.2.5 State Responsibility and Liability 98

3.2.2.6 Sovereign Immunity 101

3.2.2.7 Relationship of Part XII to Other Conventions on the Protection and Preservation of the

Marine Environment 102

3.3 Conclusions 103

Chapter 4 Steps Towards Integrated and Ecosystem Based Protection of the Oceans 106

4.1 Introduction 106

4.2 World Conservation Strategy – IUCN/UNEP/WWF Report 1980 108

4.3 Our Common Future – Brundtland Report 1987 111

4.4 Legal Principles for Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development – Report of the

Experts Group on Environmental Law 1986 115

4.5 Caring For the Earth – A Strategy for Sustainable Living – IUCN/UNEP/WWF Report – 1991

116

4.6 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) – 1992 118

4.6.1 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 120

4.6.2 Agenda 21- Chapter 17 (Oceans Chapter) 124

4.6.2.1 Chapter 17 Section A – Integrated Management And Sustainable Development of Coastal

and Marine Zones 126

4.6.2.2 Chapter 17 Section B – Marine Environmental Protection 129

4.6.2.3 Chapter 17 Section C - Sustainable Use and Conservation of Marine Living Resources of

the High Seas 132

4.6.2.4 The Legacy of the Agenda 21 Oceans Chapter for the Marine Environment Beyond National

Jurisdiction 137

4.7 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity 138

4.7.1 Jakarta Mandate on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity 144

4.8 World Summit on Sustainable Development – Johannesburg 2002 147

4.9 UN Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea (UNICPOLOS) – 2000-

2005 149

4.10 Conclusions 150

Chapter 5 The Exploitation of Marine Living Resources Beyond National Jurisdiction –

Environmental Regulation 153

5.1 Introduction 153

5.2 High Seas Fisheries 154

5.2.1 Global Instruments 155

5.2.1.1 UN Fish Stocks Agreement 155

5.2.1.2 (FAO) High Seas Compliance Agreement 163

5.2.1.3 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 165

5.2.1.4 Implementation and Enforcement 169

5.2.2 Regional Instruments 169

5.2.2.1 Atlantic Ocean Region 170

5.2.2.1.1 North West Atlantic Fisheries Organization 171

5.2.2.1.2 North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission 177

5.2.2.1.3 South East Atlantic Fisheries Organization 181

5.2.3.1.4 International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas 185

5.2.2.2 Mediterranean Sea Region 187

5.2.2.2.1 General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean 187

5.2.2.3 Pacific Ocean Region 191

5.2.2.3.1 Inter American Tropical Tuna Commission 191

5.2.2.3.2 Western and Central Pacific Ocean Fisheries Commission 195

5.2.2.4 Indian Ocean Region 200

5.2.2.4.1 Indian Ocean Tuna Commission 200

5.2.2.5 Global and Trans Ocean Organisations 203

5.2.2.5.1 Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna 203

5.2.2.5.2 Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources 205

5.2.3 European Union Policies 211

5.3 Cetaceans 217

5.3.1 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 218

5.5 Conclusions 22928

Chapter 6 Maritime Transport Beyond National Jurisdiction –Environmental Regulation 232

6.1 Introduction 232

6.2 Vessel Source Pollution 235

6.2.1 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) 235

6.2.1.1 Consistency of MARPOL 73/78 with International Environmental Law Principles 244

6.2.1.2 Enforcement of MARPOL 73/78 Beyond National Jurisdiction 245

6.2.1.3 Regional Arrangements for Port State Control 247

6.2.2 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other

Matter(London Convention) and the 1996 Protocol (London Protocol) 255

6.2.2.1 Compliance and Enforcement Provisions 257

6.3 Invasive Aquatic Species 266

6.3.1 IMO Instruments on Ballast Water Management 268

6.4 Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas 273

6.4.1 Shipping Industry Organisations 282

6.4.2 Environmental NGOs 283

6.5 The Role of Non State Actors in Shipping Activities Beyond National Jurisdiction 275

6.5.1 Shipping Industry Organisations 276

6.5.2 Environmental Organisations 278

6.7 Conclusions 2843

Chapter 7 Deep Seabed Mining Activities National Jurisdiction – Environmental Regulation 287

7.1 Introduction 287

7.2 LOSC Provisions and Part XI Implementing Agreement 291