ecotoxicology of anthropogenic poisons

introduction
poisons
chemical warfare agents >>>
sulfur mustard agents
arsenic agents
organophosphate nerve agents
pesticides
DDT
organochlorine pesticides
organophosphorus pesticides
PCB and PCDD
TNT and explosives
radionuclides
heavy metals
asbestos
conclusions
 

The emergence of human civilization within Earth's biosphere has established a new benchmark for ecological mechanisms. So far, this mechanism worked in the natural feedback loop, which eliminated the possibility of the existence of self-destruction of species; reduction of harmful toxins released by species populations was automatically reduced by conditioned reflexes. Unfortunately, in the case of the human population for at least a hundred years, this reflex does not work. Since the industrial revolution we have been guided by rationalism based on the negation of our cultural heritage. We participate in ecological experiment on the planetary scale.

The commandment "You shall not kill" worked in all the ancient canons of the rules governing the society survival.This somehow contributed to the voluntary restraint of destructive human skills, meaning that his intellectual potential was assigned to the sustainable use of the environment. The elimination of the species for the dietary needs of the human population has been slow since the dawn of civilization. However, since hundreds of years the spectrum of species covered by the prohibition of killing has been shrinking rapidly. We are entering the third millennium of Christianity having very extremely reduced concerns about existence and protection of any living creatures and plants around us. Not only animals but also more or less defined ethnic groups and nations are subjected to the extermination on an industrial scale.

The most effective in reducing species are weapons of mass destruction, the high point of technical civilization. There is a huge selection of developed poisons to exterminate life on earth, comprising of thousands of chemicals, many of whom have already been responsible for the precarious state of the global biosphere. In the vast areas of oceans and seas, evolution has been in retreat since millennia. The dominant species there are toxic algae and jellyfish, whose success knows no precedent in the history of man on earth. 

Information about such massive "side effects" of poisons do not reach the public. Tens of thousands of scientists examine the impact of poisons on the human population and on the global ecosystem. However, the results of their research are presented in the publications isolated from the media. Unfortunately, short-term benefits from the use of poisons seem to be more important that massive overall risks. Information barrier allows for opinion, that the potentially dangerous consequences of releasing poisons into the environment are exaggerated. As a result, the cost of analyses of anthropogenic eco-toxins and their impacts on the environment, presents negligible fraction of the cost of production and distribution of poisons. Human population behaves without any concerns for lack of defense against self-destruction. This eco-toxicology guide reveals the most dangerous poisons, and aims at presentation of facts known only to very few experts in the field. The decision to invest adequate resources to research alternatives for using poisons in the economy must be preceded by an understanding of the risks associated with the current standard practices.

 

introduction

Development of technology created poisons produced by the industry. Initially, emissions of poisons resulted from the inadvertent release of by-products or wastes produced in technical processes. The next release of poisons has been part of the fight against pests and weeds. Soon the poisons have been used by the military to exterminate their enemies or unwanted social groups. Finally, redundant stocks and production waste poisons started accumulating in the environment due to questionable and not very much reliable treatments called “neutralization“. Tens of millions of tones of anthropogenic pollutants make impossible to maintain normal living conditions. In such conditions, mostly thriving are these forms of life, that are resilient to harmful effects of poisons. Therefore, people became the direct victims of the harmful effects of poisons. People also need to adjust their economic needs to restrictions resulting from the absence of these species that have ensured the sustainable development of human civilization.

Living organisms react to the presence of poisons by a number of ways. The most simple organisms (like bacteria) frequently die or no longer multiply. The population of susceptible bacteria population is often replaced by others, resistant to the encountered poisons. Higher organisms able to modify biological processes in their cells, react differently to the presence of poisons in the environment. Such organisms change functioning of their cells and survive poisons attacks. In contact with carcinogens such changes can lead to cancer or to genetically established defensive mechanisms. Consequently we can observe a variety of pests, weeds and other genetically modified organisms resistant to toxic agents used in agroindustry. Finally, in the human population , distinctive and growing number of individuals becomes immunized to ecological toxins. It can be expected that people can adapt to toxic surrounding. However, epidemics of "civilization diseases”, especially in places where communities are severely exposed to the anthropogenic poisons, call for action. One of the ways to combat diseases such as cancer and allergies, is application of modern medical science. Another way is to reduce the production and disposal of poisons that have been already dispersed in the environment. Both actions absorb a growing share of resources and expenses. The new field of science, called Eco-toxicology of Anthropogenic Poisons, should help to facilitate the efficient allocation of spending related to the health of the population.

Toxins produced by humans are designed to achieve maximum efficiency. Pesticides and toxic agents act in such way, that they effectively poison the target organisms, and at the same time are the least harmful to their producers. Since it had become evident that released agents pose a threat to the population living in the surrounding areas, science tried to assess the impacts of these poisons on public health. Health care system must respond to ecological risks resulting from the presence of poisons existing in the environment. Serious, as well as less significant cases of poisoning coming from consumption/breathing of contaminated food, water, or air, must be dealt with, regardless of immunity/resistance level characterizing particular individual. Enormous costs of maintaining health care systems are the cause of social security decline. Science must define the relationship between the incidences of "civilizations diseases” and the presence of poisons in the environment. Moreover, science should identify ways to reduce the impact of these chemicals on the health status of the population. 

Summarizing: eco-toxicology of anthropogenic poisons deals with the growing impact of human technological activities, activities that are harmful for civilization. During the implementation of this most urgent task, worrying hypothesis appeared - the effect of poisons released into the environment can cause significant losses for the entire Earth's biosphere. For example - degenerated soil can not produce a traditional plant species in many regions. Fishery is dying in rivers, lakes and seas. Fishes and other species become extinct, and unfit for consumption. Uncontrolled exploitation, spread of poisons in agriculture cause degradation of natural resources. Most importantly, eco-toxicology science assesses suitability of food produced in a toxic environment. Secondly, this science develops environmental cleaning techniques. Not long time ago opinion prevailed, that sufficient limitation of production and reduced usage of poisons would trigger nature’s spontaneous healing and nature return to its original state. Yet, we have already learned that this hypothesis is not confirmed. Just opposite, we observe evidence that without special costly treatments the ecosystem will never return to normality.

Just as in medicine, treatment should be preceded by a documented diagnosis of the environment. However the results of eco-toxicological studies are little known among policy-makers. Reports are scattered in tens of thousands of publications and do not form any clear orderly picture of the situation. To facilitate decision-making, collection of all pollutants/poisons and their impact assessments must become precise and publicly available. We offer an overview of hazards posed by the most common poisons in the human environment, as well as presentation of proposals for reducing the risk for humans and other living organisms. For each of the above mentioned poisons we describe: 1) physical and chemical characteristics; 2) the technological/industrial applications; 3) methods of manufacturing; 4) production scale; 5) occurrence in nature; 6) well-known effects on living organisms; 7) techniques of neutralization. The general level of information is vital and represents necessity for decision - making. Further, expanded portion of this document covers comprehensive review of knowledge. Sources listed in the bibliography will be assigned to each theme.   

Poisons

PAny substance causing death or illness when absorbed in small doses by the healthy people, is called poison by definition. What truly defines “small dose” and its minimum amount, is not clear, however, customarily, several grams, the amount of which will fit in a tablespoon of liquid would represent a good example of the “dose“. Among poisons we will find well known and useful chemical substances, application of which determines the functioning of the current industrial production systems. Commonly found industrial wastes belong to the same category. Poisons can be arranged in terms of toxicity, or according to the magnitude of the risk they represent to health and to the environment. For the purposes of decision-making, the most important would be to organize information about the poisons whose elimination from the environment is the most urgent.

chemical warfare agents

In this group there are poisons used by the army in order to kill, or permanently injure the enemy. Usage of such substances is prohibited, while manufacturing and storage restricted by international agreements. However, these restrictions do not apply to waste created during weapons production. Residues and byproducts are usually placed under the water (seas, lakes) or buried in the ground. It is estimated that the global inventory of combat poisons released into the environment would show more than one million tonnes. Due to the extremely hazardous and diversified properties of these waste, there is a lack of organized manner in which neutralization could takes place and storage locations are kept confidential. The largest quantity of such waste belong to the following groups:

• sulfur mustard agents
• arsenic agents
• organophosphates nerve agents 

pesticides

This group contains poisons ready to fight and eliminate pests, weeds and fungi. A significant number of pesticides has been already banned, their production and storage as well. Production waste and out-dated pesticides, as well as military poisons, are often eliminated in a manner that is harmful to the environment. It is estimated that the global environment contains tens of millions of tons of scattered poisons belonging to pesticides group. The most dangerous are sub-groups:

• DDT
• Organochlorine pesticides
• organophosphorus pesticides

PCB i PCDD

They embrace polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins which permanently contaminate the environment despite the fact , that their production has ceased since many years. Therefore we encounter: 1) highly toxic substances produced inadvertently by pesticides manufacturers and waste incinerators, 2) large volume of chemicals that has been extensively utilized and considered useful since decades. Both categories adversely affect humans and animals health. Spread and persistence of PCBs and PCDD in the environment are extraordinary. There has been a debate for many years, which of these poisons cause more damage to the environment: whether the vast mass of less toxic polychlorinated biphenyls, or relatively small doses of dangerous and incredibly aggressive dioxins.

TNT and explosives

Trinitrotoluene explosive blends containing TNT and their byproducts are produced on a massive scale for military and civilian use. In the twentieth century, tens of millions of tons of these chemicals were detonated during the global wars and local conflicts. Unfortunately, large number bombs, missiles, rockets, torpedoes and mines still remain in the ground and at the bottom of reservoirs and oceans. It is estimated that over 10% of the manufactured explosive devices is now in an unexploded deadly state, on top of abandoned or unwanted ammunition. Only a small part of the redundant arms was properly abolished in an environmentally safe way. Remaining vast majority was located in the marine environment or buried in the ground. We now realize, that explosives are causing contamination of huge territories. What is the most worrisome: nitro-compounds and their degradation products are classified as carcinogens.

radionuclides

The development of nuclear technology in the second half of the twentieth century, caused an extraordinary increase of radioactivity in the biosphere. Thousands of nuclear explosions dispersed billions of tons of radioactive dusts, water and gases in the atmosphere. Hundreds of nuclear power plants continuously produce waste and emissions that are actually hundreds of times more radioactive than fission fuel itself. This extra, artificial radioactivity coming from the nuclear technology puts immense pressure on the immune systems of living organisms, systems that have been developed over billions of years of evolution. There is no place on Earth that is completely free of increased radioactivity. Some areas are especially lethal where the radiation eliminates most of the local life or causes the worst variety of cancer and genetic mutations.

heavy metals

Modern technology can not function without the use of highly toxic elements such as arsenic, chromium, zinc, cadmium, copper, nickel, lead and mercury. These metals are derived from minerals by mining. Tens of millions of tons, every year, are consumed in the manufacturing of thousands products. Byproducts and excesses are disposed in the environment as mining/industrial and municipal waste. Discarded and corroding final products contaminate water, soil, and form atmospheric dust that is dispersed in the environment. A significant part of the northern hemisphere shows multi excess of natural concentrations of heavy metals. Rapid industrial development of southern hemisphere eliminates the last natural ecosystems. According to our knowledge, this type of pollution causes systemic disorders in humans and animals. Presence of heavy metals speeds or slows down the majority of metabolic processes in living organisms.

asbestos

In the past, this mineral used to be recognized as a neutral. Tens of millions of tones of asbestos have been transformed into particularly dangerous carcinogenic products, mostly utilized in construction and building industry. Toxicology science failed to demonstrate the relationship between exposure to asbestos dust and the incidences of cancer. Today it is hard to find a place in the northern hemisphere, where concentration of asbestos particles in the air would not be dangerous for health. The elimination of asbestos requires the removal and neutralization of all construction and technical materials containing this mineral. Unfortunately, removal, elimination and replacement of asbestos containing products is recognized as the most hazardous and harmful for engaged in it workers. These workers experience the most extreme exposure to asbestos. Asbestos will remain as a health risk for hundreds of years, even if all countries jointly take the burden of eliminating monstrous quantities of this poison.

There are more anthropogenic toxins than listed above. Among the 2 million substances produced by the global economy, listed here toxins stand out in terms of impact on Earth's biosphere and the entire population of humanity. They were dispersed in the environment at a time when nobody expected and predicted that their poisonous properties would permanently change the status of vulnerable ecosystems. Since a few years, measures have been taken to restore natural conditions for life in particularly vulnerable territories. One of such territories include most of Western Europe, where industry has substantially contributed to environmental degradation. Good example is Poland and especially its large province Silesia, where oldest European coal mines, steel mills, coking plants and oil refineries exist. Extreme danger threatens the inhabitants of Silesia. Even larger increase in "lifestyle diseases" is being reported by the medical professionals in Pomerania. Daily contact with the contaminated salty mist from the Baltic sea is unhealthy and damaging for Pomeranians. Baltic and other seas have been regarded for decades as a free waste and wastewater dump. Recently this toxic “tomb” gives us back the most dangerous poisons with a vengeance. The poisoned water is brimming with resilient toxic algae and cyanobacteria. Emissions of carcinogenic toxins of biological origin raise the level of environmental risk. Programs for remedying the situation do not exist, or are at an early stage of development. In order to facilitate the planning process, here we present an overview of proven connections between health and the presence of anthropogenic environmental poisons.

chemical warfare agents

The chemical toxins used to eliminate the enemy manpower shall be designed in such way that:

• they possess ability to be scattered in toxic doses within the area occupied by the enemy.
• they are able to sustain their toxic properties over a long period of time for effective shock purposes.
• they are able to cause death or inability to function.
• they can be relatively easy neutralized, destroyed or dispersed by chemical disinfectants available to those who spread toxins: reason being - to clean up environment after adversary has been liquidated or withdrew from the area.

In the history of wars, poisons have been present since long time. Currently, there is a feeling that chemical weapons are excluded from the arsenal and no one dares to use it. Unfortunately, most aggressive regimes maintain active programs for developing this type of weapon. Also, terrorists are searching to obtain chemical warfare. "Atomic bomb for the poor" is especially dangerous because nations in Europe and America reduce or slowly neglect their ability to defend against chemical contaminations.

Modern times allowed for development of several patterns in which chemical weapons could be brought into play. Each pattern requires different preparations of poisons.

• strategic or land covering use

Attacker prepares weapons capable to affect targets located at the considerable distance. Distance must be large enough, so attacker remains without any exposure to spread poisons. Poisons are carried by a missile warheads, artillery shells and air bombs. Smaller areas can be effectively attacked by aircraft equipped for spraying pesticides. Typically, the density of the dispersed poisons is minimal. The objective is to create chaos within enemy’s territory; for example causing panic among unprepared people (civilians or military personnel). This in turn disorganizes and disrupts emergency response services.

Defender strengthens its line of defense, preparing and mounting chemical landmines firewalls. Such firewalls are in some cases ready to release even larger quantities of poisons. The task is complete elimination or at least exhaustion of the opponents‘ troops and tactical military units. This of course is expected by the striker, therefore he tries to overpower enemy’s capacity in using more chemical warfare. Resulting vicious circle leads to research, planning and escalating use of new extremely strong toxic chemicals, possessing long term environmental stability, persistence and resistant to neutralization.

• tactical use of chemical weapons

Strategic as well as tactical use of chemical weapons, requires long distance transportation of deadly cargo. This distance may vary and has to be determined by the user in order to not expose its own military forces. Task is complicated - toxins should cause massive destruction of enemy troops, but at the same time, the same chemicals suppose to become quickly harmless and easy to neutralize within the fighting area. This would assure safe occupation of the on battleground.

• use of chemical weapons in chambers and contained spaces

In order to exterminate large groups of people, poison must be highly effective, easy to spray and able to react quickly with water during neutralization.. This ensures minimal exposure for operators who damp poison into the gas chambers. Terrorists plan use of poisons in contained spaces as well in order to kill or incapacitate maximum number of people with minimum amount of substance. Such actions are designed to disorganize response of emergency teams as well. Selected poisons, would have rather long lasting chemical stability in this case.

This overview of the introduction of poisons by the military, points to a little-known extra environmental problems. The multitude of ways how poisons can be utilized and applied, requires that producers must constantly modify physicochemical properties of the active substances. Containers, unexploded bombs, mines and shells found in the environment must be analyzed not only for their main deadly content , but for traces of additional reagents and by-products. Ultimately it is necessary to identify all components that have been used during the synthesis of particular poison. It is worth to observe , that usually manufacturers of chemical poisons were not under any obligation to ordering party, to care and pay attention for environmental wellbeing. Consequently reagents selected for synthetic processes belonged to non-degradable organic toxins.

Efforts to eliminate poisons from the combat environment get often complicated because the presence of still not detonated explosives. Abandoned, useless armament remaining after the conflict, contains large amount of unexploded devices equipped with active igniters. Shells slowly corrode and poisonous substances sometimes penetrate explosives, what is the cause of chemical instability inside the shell. Therefore, the risk assessment for cleaning work must be extremely detailed. Possibilities of toxic shock as well as potential risk of direct explosion are extremely high. All this has to be taken under consideration before special forces decide to remove or dig out waste weapons.

Neutralization of chemical weapons belong to the most dangerous and most expensive duties . This one fact alone is just enough for the responsible institutions, to keep information (or at least to try) about the existence of such waste as a secret. Not difficult task - these institutions usually belong to military structures, where long tradition of maintaining the secrecy of possessing chemical weapons is widely approved and accepted. This type of weapons were always the most closely protected resources of any army. It would be highly inappropriate, should public and civilians recognize and perceive top military officials as treacherous poisoners.

At the end of the Cold War, both sides withdrew the whole stock of strategic weapons from the Central Europe. Officially, this included only quantity of nuclear weapons. Russians reported reduction of 17 0000 of nuclear heads from the former Warsaw Pact countries. Meanwhile, nothing is known about the number of remaining chemical and biological loads. Military authorities in Germany and in Poland claim frequently, that their territories contain unknown number of chemical compounds that have to be dealt with. This is not a separate case. For example U.S. authorities has not revealed the number of abandoned chemical cargoes at locations in foreign territories. After many intervention by Chinese authorities, Japan had finally acknowledged, its army left behind more than 2 million units of chemical weapons resting on the occupied territories.

While the responsible former policy-makers "moving into the historical dimension", repercussions of their hasty decisions persist. Earlier attempts managed to eliminate chemical weapons from the arsenals, however science and general public pays now more and strongly justified attention to large presence of unused, toxic stockpiles of related wastes, and how to get rid of it. Attention shifted to all chemical residues and by-products. Particular importance is assigned to carcinogenic risk arising from the properties of such forgotten waste. Only since not long time ago, it has been learned that presence and release of carcinogens to the environment can cause deadly changes in the population of microorganisms. For example: strains of bacteria, viruses and fungi have co-existed with humans and animals since millions of years. Under the influence of gigantic doses of carcinogens, these organisms may transpose into malignant, and able to cause new epidemics of unknown diseases among humans.

mustard agents (yperites)

Large volume production of this group of poisons is dated from the time of the First World War. Sulfur mustard was produced by all countries involved in World War II. After this war, unused stocks of Yperites were disposed by sinking in the sea or buried in the ground. It is estimated that USSR "neutralized" by this way more than 100 000 tons of Yperites sealed in containers, in mines, bombs and missiles. The same “methods“ have been employed by United States, Britain, Japan and France. Due to the remarkable stability of mustard gases in the aquatic environment, Yperites will retain its toxic potential for the next tens and hundreds of years.

Contact with mustards is a threat to all living creatures. Mustards were tried as a therapy for fast growing tumors, however it was quickly discovered that these attempts result in an even more forms of cancer and death of patients. Trials have been abandoned. Mustards belong to external agents that cause mutation and exogenous damage of DNA cells, similar to damages by X-rays and gamma rays. For this reason, mustards are used in genetic engineering to create a stochastic cell mutations. Presence of mustards in the environment may play a similar role and lead to the emergence of previously unknown strains of bacteria and viruses.

arsenic compounds

These compounds and their organic derivatives were produced as well; the quantities assessed to be not less than Yperites. Only small amounts of these poisons were used during the wars. Inventories, unfortunately, have not been liquidated properly and they still endanger the environment. Chemicals from this group react easier with moisture, and final products of hydrolysis are inorganic arsenic compounds. Consequently, arsenic compounds located on the seabed, systematically contribute to increase of the concentration of toxic substances. Even small doses of arsenic can cause genetic changes. Sea food collected from the contaminated areas poses a health risk and should be eliminated from the commercial market. Losses in the ecosystem may be even far more serious. Expansions of the “death zones” around sunk chemical weapons represent the difficulties for marine organisms in adapting to abnormally elevated concentrations of arsenic.

organophosphates

The most lethal chemicals produced on an industrial scale belong to organophosphates. Production of these poisons started during the World War II and stock in the arsenals probably reached 50 000 tons. This is a quantity sufficient to kill more than once the entire population of humanity. Currently, stocks of organophosphate poisons are to be destroyed under the disarmament programs. However, organophosphates and other chemical waste remain in a large number of unreported dumping and burial sites used by the military.

Organophosphates undergo rapid degradation in the environment, but its hydrolysis products are toxic as well. Organophosphates belong to group of neurotoxin, which means that they are able to block the nervous system of every living organism. Few milligrams of such may result in human's death within minutes. The smallest doses are capable to inflict partial paralysis, which also represents health risk. The best-known, observed cases of severe health disorders were reported after the Gulf War. Gulf War syndrome affected tens of thousands of veterans. They suffered after accidental exposures during demolition of organophosphates stockpiles. A number of incurable neurological and cancerous disorders attribute to the symptoms of this syndrome. 

pesticides

Pesticides have been used for more than 100 years in order to protect crops , forests and woodlands. This pest control is massive. Equally toxic are the chemicals used to eliminate pests and pathogenic micro-organisms in cities premises, parks, rivers and reservoirs. Toxic chemicals kill or permanently prevent reproduction of these organisms. Protective treatments are performed during outbreaks of harmful organisms in crops or during increased symptoms of plant and animal diseases. Pesticides are selectively chosen as not to cause excessive losses in the natural environment. In addition, the timing and length of treatment must be such, that poisons do not reduce quality and value of crops. Depending on the magnitude of the risk and the size of area where safeguard action takes place, analogy to use of chemical weapons is quite evident. Pesticides’ compositions are prepared depending on how they are applied and what environmental conditions dictate at this moment.. The difference lies mainly in the fact, that here the enemy is not people but pests and pathogenic microorganisms.

Global consumption of pesticides is estimated at over one million tones of active substances per year. The cost of pesticides in agricultural industry and production does not exceed a few percent, while the benefits of their use is estimated at 20 to 80 percent of harvest volume. I would be difficult to reduce treatments involving pesticides. Global agricultural production would not be able to maintain minimal food supplies and humanity would be affected by famine on a global scale. In order to minimize pesticide use, agro-science works on developing crops resistant to pests and diseases. Research concentrates around targeted breeding and application of genetic engineering. Yet, genetically modified crops still need pesticides. The biggest commercial success is represented now by varieties of genetically modified plants resistant even to pesticides capable of killing all potential pests.

In addition to agricultural application, significant quantities of pesticides are released into the environment by construction and utilities industries, particularly when manufactured products are susceptible to biological corrosion. Widespread use of different pesticides take place for maintaining sanitary conditions in premises and public places. Theoretically industrial use of pesticides is subject to strict controls. Practically, the only way to curb the use of poisons is to prohibit the sale of dangerous chemical mixtures. That is why strongly reactive, aggressive and toxic chemicals are covered by the concessions only for professional service providers. However, all restrictions do not change the fact, that only small proportion of released pesticides gets in direct contact with the targeted organisms, while the remaining larger portion misses the targets and spreads without control and uselessly into the environment. This applies to both, sanitary, industrial and agronomic treatments by pesticides.

Produced and applied pesticides ultimately and almost entirely end up in soil and in aquatic environment. They undergo chemical degradation and conversion to biologically neutral substances, but not before making large damage to ecosystem. Damage mostly includes changes of living conditions for microorganisms, and consequently for all organisms on the upper floors of the food chain. Usually we do not observe amphibians, reptiles and birds within and around intensive cultivation areas. Individual animals and plant species are regarded as indicators for assessing the health status of the natural environment. Their absence, or presence of genetic changes/mutations is a testament to the devastation of the environment. In such degraded environment people can not grow traditional varieties of crops and livestock feed. On the top floor of the food chain exist power plants. Not suitable for consumption agro- products, are simply burned as a substitute for fossil fuels.

The need for increasing fertilizers’ consumption and loss of essential crops are not the only problems created as a result of unwise use of pesticides. When polluted and eroded soil is being washed down at growing pace, the most persistent chemicals used in agriculture, ultimately end up in the rivers, lakes and oceans. These chemicals destroy living conditions of aquatic organisms, which in turn manifests itself in the form of toxic algae blooms. Under such conditions any useful aquatic organisms are bound to die. Finally, the contents of algae prevents the use of water reservoirs for sport activities. In extreme cases, the population near the coasts may be affected by the wind made, sea- surface aerosols that contain poisonous algae.

Soil erosion, and consumers seeking pesticide- free foods, force industry and environmental agencies to choose less harmful chemicals. Criteria for quick biodegradability, strict control of the effectiveness of treatment with the use of pesticides, and finally, increasing fees for their use, lead to reduced environmental damage. The existing pollution will continue to threaten health and cost of healthcare. Leukemia, cancer of the central nervous system, allergies and asthma are the most characteristic and frequent among the diseases resulting from chronic exposure to environmental quantities of pesticides. There are many reasons in favor of the hypothesis, that observed impairment of reproduction among humans in the most contaminated regions, is connected to environmental exposure to pesticides. The consequences of chemical warfare with nature are slowly revealed in the form of demographic decline and the growing burden on the social security system.

DDT

In the past, DDT was considered the best defense against mosquitoes and all pests. 30 years have passed since the massive use of DDT. At least one million tons of this poison have been released into the global environment. As late as in the 1970s, occupational medicine managed to deliver credible opinion that DDT is linked to many cases of cancer. DDT has been withdrawn from wide applications recently. Decision to apply DDT belongs to health authorities in some cases when lives are endangered due to insects infestation. In Africa, DDT is still used to combat mosquitoes that spread malaria. DDT is extremely persistent in the environment, therefore people are still exposed to this compound that threatens their health. In the marine environment the half-life of DDT is estimated to be 150 years. The food from the sea still contain measurable traces of DDT and its metabolites; value of such food is reduced. In addition, wind made aerosols are, and still will remain the main source of human exposure to this poison.

organochlorine pesticides

In this group, besides DDT, one will find the most dangerous and resistant pesticides. These pesticides are now withdrawn from use in most countries of the world. This group delivers the best example of how wrong risk assessment and production / research cost minimizing, can lead to bad consequences. Almost one million tones of organochlorine pesticides had been released before production abandonment. Additional burden on the environment exists as well. It is due to excess of nearly a quarter of a million of tones of pesticides containing chlorine poison. These chemicals rest mostly in undesignated places not prepared for storage of such materials.. Prime example is France, where disastrous impact of mass use of organochlorine pesticides affects French economy. Vineries of thousand-year tradition are lost, and French indigenous population entered into a deep demographic crisis. On top of it, coastal sea areas fed by the rivers containing organochlorines, represent particularly dangerous changes in the ecosystem.

organophosphorus pesticides

Among the strongest poisons still commonly used in agronomy are organophosphorus pesticides. In many cases they replaced banned chlorines, thanks to faster degradation. Faster degradation in environment allows for application ,where growing crops are destined for direct consumption. However, the ecological risk associated with the aggressive use of such chemicals cannot be underestimated. Successive withdrawal or reduction of the organophosphate pesticides takes place, because a health risk to workers who use this type of pesticide is assessed as unacceptable. Similar to organophosphate nerve agents, pesticides of this group are classified as neurotoxins. Neurotoxins attack and paralyze basic life functions. The smallest aquatic organisms, which are part of plankton, show the greatest sensitivity to organophosphorous compounds. Polluted by organophosphorous pesticides, waters are deprived of important part of food chain, that is zooplankton. Instead, massive blooms of phytoplankton, and potentially toxic algae and cyanobacteria are observed.

PCB i PCDD

WHO reports recently, that even the smallest doses of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) have harmful effects on human health. These are the most persistent organic poisons, showing extremely strong accumulation in the food chain due to chemical stability. PCBs and PCDDs are scattered throughout the Earth's biosphere and will affect future generations of all living organisms. Elimination of PCBs and PCDDs from environment should be considered as the struggle for civilization’s survival.

Manufacturing of PCBs was globally banned, but not before more than 1.2 million tons of these poisons had found their way into environment. PCBs became a huge commercial success thanks to its extraordinary durability. PCBs are not only non-flammable, but capable to maintain high temperature electrical insulation properties for decades. They were used in electronics, and as extinguishing and flame retardants as well. PCBs have not been recognized as a health hazard until the 1970s. At that time it was revealed that exposed to PCBs humans and animals, suffer for reduced rate of reproduction. It has been discovered not long time ago, that PCB compounds are present in breast feeding mothers having retarded children. Science related to eco-toxicology of PCBs reveals widening spectrum of harmful effects of these poisons on vulnerable human populations and entire animal species.

Dioxins are the strongest of the synthetic poisons ever known. They have never been produced on an industrial scale. Dioxins are formed in many chemical processes as by-products and impurities, then placed together with the main products in the environment. Dioxins can be found in exhaust gases and ashes produced by thermal conversion of fuels and waste containing chlorinated organic compounds. Significant amounts of dioxins are released from the landfill as the seepage. It is estimated that the global economy “delivers” 3 to 10 tonnes of dioxins into the environment every year. Since they are extremely persistent, stable and resistant , we may expect that exposure to dioxins will not decreased in any steady manner in the foreseeable future. It is known that dioxins act as a growth suppressant, having substantial impact on multiplication of fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals and humans. Dioxins damage central nervous systems, immune systems, endocrine and reproduction, disrupt the growth and development of children and cause various cancers. Dioxins will continue to be a major public health problem.

TNT and explosives

The technological revolution of the twentieth century contributed to the emergence of a new ecological risk associated with military conflicts. Before techno-revolution, wars used to cause decimation of population , create destruction of infrastructure and fixed assets , bring famine, disease epidemics, degradation or sometimes collapse of involved nations (including societies’ culture). XX century wars differed, and contributed extra factors: massive extermination of hundreds of millions of human beings, as well as the release of millions of tons of carcinogens coming from modern weapons and weapons components. Inventory of these poisons is not possible. Weapons manufacturers are obliged by the governments to maintain production capacity in the strictest confidence and estimates of stocks of explosives are carried out secretively by intelligence agencies. Today, most manufacturers do not mark explosives in the manner that is required by conventions pertaining to combating terrorism. By definition, the unit used in these estimates is defined as “the equivalent of one thousand tonnes of TNT“.

TNT is relatively cheap and simple to manufacture while having excellent properties. TNT and other organic nitro compounds are hardly bio-degradable and chemically stable. They are considered to be the most useful and desirable explosives, but they create big environmental problem. Decades after World War II, an unexploded shells and bombs remain abandoned in the fields , patches of woodlands and water .While corrosion of metal slowly progresses, toxic content starts to enter waters of economic importance. The scale of the problem is quite large. For example, in USA, government undertook inventory of sites contaminated with explosives. It is estimated that there are about 50 thousand contaminated sites connected to production of explosives and military training camps. The total cost of cleaning these sites may exceed U.S. $ 1000 billion, and the work associated with clean up may not be finished before year 2070. Considering that USA territory were not affected by direct fighting during WWII, situation in Europe must be much worse.

In Europe, every day brings tonnes of extracted unexploded material, planted in the ground after both world wars. Disposition of this material is carried by classical method, meaning by controlled explosions. At least 10% of exploded material is not fully destroyed and eventually ends up/persist in the environment. There are other alternative environmentally friendly methods for riddance of ammunition components, but cost has not been accepted by involved authorities yet. It is important to mention, that large tonnage of redundant and unneeded weapons, manufactured for potential outbreak of WWIII, have been shipped to the third world countries. Upon arrival at the destination, stock is simply dumped in the seas. It would be also worth to emphasize, that in the arsenals containing tonnes of useless ammunition of any kind, we face the carcinogenic components. These compounds can be much more disruptive to the environment than all the other anthropogenic toxins and pollutants.

radionuclides

Life on Earth was established during ionizing radiation of much greater intensity than recently. The source of this radiation is the Sun and constantly changing properties of space surrounding the Sun. Under the influence of neutron flux entering the Earth's atmosphere, specified quantity of radioactive carbon and hydrogen has been maintained. These elements are absorbed by all living organisms.. However, unlike the neutral components of organisms, radioactive isotopes are subject to decay releasing energy within cells. This energy is capable of deformation of life's mechanisms and responsible for genetic mutations of species. Deformation leads to cells' death, but at the same time is responsible for creation of new and useful molecular formulas. In the vast mass of destruction caused by ionizing radiation, fixed genetic changes occur within species, sometimes leading to the emergence of a new species. It is thanks to primordial molecular soup of radioactive isotopes of carbon and hydrogen, that emergence of complex organisms such as humans took place. The cells of mammals have developed several defense mechanisms. These mechanisms protect higher organisms against frequent deformations. However, excessive exposure to radioactive isotopes can cause deadly illnesses (for example cancerous lumps) . The emergence of weapons and nuclear energy has raised the risk level of adverse genetic changes in living organisms.

Under normal conditions, the Earth's atmosphere contained 1.4 terabecquerel, (TBq) x10⁵ units of radioactivity, and the waters of the ocean attracted 100x10⁵ TBq of carbon-14 isotope activity. Experimental explosions of atomic bombs in the years 1950-1970 increased amount of carbon-14 in the atmosphere by 2.2 TBq x10⁵ . Nuclear reactors release small amounts of this isotope in the form of gaseous emissions. Processing and storage of radioactive waste contributes to emissions as well. Estimations show that the total emission of the nuclear industry does not exceed 0.04 TBq x10⁵, however it may be assumed that this number will grow while nuclear energy becomes more popular. Indeed, assimilated by the Earth's biosphere amount of isotope C-14 increased substantially during the years immediately after the nuclear tests in the atmosphere. Despite the fact that Carbon -14 is absorbed by oceans at the increased rate (according to post 1980 reports), this process will rather not bring the concentration of C-14 to pre atomic age level. In general, the risk of radiation persisting in the biosphere will continue to rise. Unlike carbon-14C, hydrogen-3 (tritium) has a short half-life. This means, tritium is an active isotope, its emissions disappear in the environment after a short time. Dose of cosmic rays is able to produce 1.5 x10⁵ TBq/year of radioactivity from tritium in the atmosphere. Global radiation from tritium was 26x10⁵ TBq. Nuclear tests in the atmosphere resulted in a surplus of tritium measured at 2960x10⁵ TBq. Of this amount, to this day remains 185x10⁵ TBq, which is still six times greater than in the early twentieth century. In addition to tritium from nuclear explosions, tritium is produced in nuclear power reactors. It is almost impossible to verify scale of tritium emissions from nuclear reactors. Estimates strongly depend on a number of “hazy” assumptions steaming from reactors’ designers, as well as from allegations and accusations coming from not directly involved observers and critics. Therefore nuclear energy emissions represent a “gray zone”.

Let us examine typical “water-water-energy -reactor” (WWER), having capacity of 440 MWe and containing 900 kg of uranium-235 that radiates 0.00006x10⁵ Tbq. Such reactor produces about 1000 kg of radioactive products of decomposition (fission) and corrosion per year. These products release 400x10⁵ Tbq/year. Most of these products have a very short life time and convert to radiation-neutral during the operating cycle of the reactor. However, a small part remains still radioactive. One may assume 0.015X10⁵ Tbq per every GWe produced in WWER. This radiation takes mostly form of gaseous emissions. Unfortunately such emissions, globally, are impossible to calculate. It is known that the waste collected by the Russian nuclear energy (in the form of wastewater and solids) may have radioactivity in the vicinity of 750x10⁵ TBq. Stored spent fuel from Russian reactors delivers 3000x10⁵ TBq . These values, when compared to the level of global natural radioactivity, clearly indicate the dominant influence of the nuclear industry over the level of hazardous radiation coming from terrestrial biosphere. There are attempts to minimize that risk by several emission reduction techniques. This does not change reality, that tritium, carbon-14 as well as radioactive isotopes of noble gases, are not currently controlled by the anti-radiation installations. Conclusion can be drawn: sooner or later the entire load of radiation emitted by the nuclear industry will get in contact with the living organisms. Considering thousands of minor and major nuclear plants accidents (same of catastrophic proportions) , we must include risk of radiation as a further threat to life on Earth. 

heavy metals

Heavy metals appeared as early as in Roman times. Rome’s social elites were degenerated by consuming wines and food containing traces of lead. Serious environmental pollution started about 100 years ago due to mining of metal ores, rise of steel industry and application of heavy metals on a massive scale. In the past, ores were deposited deep below the soil layers and were not accessible to living organisms. Heavy metals ores deposits were formed hundreds millions years ago by volcanic and hydrothermal processes. The emergence of living organisms on Earth dates back to the period after the stabilization of the Earth's crust. At that time oceans’ water was the only major reservoir for this group of metals. Even today, in the depths of the oceans, hydrothermal processes continue to release huge amounts of heavy metals; the biosphere gets into contact with these metals through the organisms inhabiting the ocean floor. A significant natural source of heavy metals are volcanic activity on land. In volcano case the biosphere absorbs the quantities of toxic substances while maintaining natural ecological balance. Before the industrial revolution, ground waters contained traces of heavy metals within the critical and necessary limit for the development of life on Earth. These "trace-micro elements" are necessary components of many biochemical processes responsible for the most important functions of every living organism. Micro-elements deficit reduces the population but an excess can lead to degenerations. From bacteria, up to human beings, all living organisms recognize excess of heavy metals as a poison.

Arsenic is widespread in nature. It is estimated that anthropogenic arsenic emissions are about 32 kilotonnes/year globally, and this number is three times greater than natural emissions. In general, the concentrations of arsenic in water counts 0.01 mg/L, but in some regions of the world, arsenic concentration in water may reach more than 3 mg/L. Food produced in the vicinity of copper smelters may contain 0.1-2.5 mg/g. Use of herbicides and defoliants containing arsenic, causes increase of concentration in food products up to 0.7 mg/g. High concentration of arsenic is found in fish and other sea creatures like crabs and shellfish (over 0.1 mg/g). In the atmosphere, the concentration of arsenic in the rural area is in the range 0.1 to 10.0 ng/m³. In less polluted cities from few to 30 ng/m³, and around steel mills and coal power plants concentration may exceed 1000 ng/m³. Arsenic occurs in many organic and inorganic compounds, many of which are classified as carcinogens. For this reason, each dose of arsenic is considered dangerous to health and the environment. Arsenic’s safe level in the air is considered as 1ng/m³, and 0.01 mg/L in the water.

Currently, world production of chromium delivers 5.8 million tonnes per year. Most of the of chromium is utilized in the production of stainless steel. The concentration of chromium in rivers and lakes measures 0.001-0.010 mg/L, in sea water 0.0001-0.005 mg/L, in the soil ranges from tiny traces to 0.1 mg/kg. The content of chromium in urban ambient air areas is usually within the limits 10 - 50 ng/m³. Almost all chromium VI present in the environment, comes from human activities. Manufacture of chromium VI is estimated at 300 thousand tonnes per year. Chromium VI arises during the industrial oxidation of chromium ore and the combustion of fuels, wood, paper, etc. Chromium compounds are used for the manufacture of dyes, tanning, cement, and in electroplating. Industrial plants that burn liquid fuel or various types of waste, are a source of chromium in the air and water. Chromium VI is a carcinogen. For this reason, each dose of chromium VI is considered dangerous to health and the environment. For risk assessment it is recommended to not exceed 0.025 nm/m³ concentration of chromium VI in the air. Any larger number should be considered as a hazard for health and environment.

Global zinc production is currently 7.5 million tonnes per year. The natural content of zinc in water is about 0.01 mg/L, however, around mills and smelters, concentration reaches up to 1.6 mg/L. Despite the high ability to migrate through the soil, zinc gets into the groundwater in relatively small quantities. Zinc content in drinking water does not exceed 0.08 mg/L. Concentration above 0.02 mg/L can be harmful to sensitive aquatic organisms. Unfortunately zinc accumulates in phyto and zooplanktons. These organisms may accumulate 30-fold higher concentration of zinc when compared to that in the water. The daily average intake of zinc by a human adult is estimated at about 10-50 mg/day. Toxic dose is 150-600 mg. Allowable concentration of zinc in air should not exceed 5000 ng/m³.

Global mining of cadmium is now 16 thousand tonnes per year. Cadmium is one of the rare elements. Only 10% of cadmium emissions come from volcanic activity. The remaining amount is due to industrial activities. Like with all heavy metals, majority of cadmium is released into the environment through the process of burning coal and heavy residues from oil refining. The dust is dispersed in the industrial areas, where it remains in soil and crops, eventually ending up in the processed food. . It is estimated that the concentration of cadmium 5 ng/m³ in the air and 0.003 mg/L in water should not be exceeded. Larger concentrations contaminate our food creating health risk.

World’s copper mining is now 12.4 million tonnes per year. Copper is widely used in electrical industry, as well as in the manufacturing of alloys. It is used to impregnate wood. Insecticides and fungicides contain copper. The largest copper contamination is observed in the vicinity of the mines and metal mills (concentration in soils near smelters is 15-20 g/kg). Even within the range of 50 km from the emission source, metallurgical dust affects environment. Municipal and industrial effluents are also a significant source of pollution in rivers and aqua-reservoirs. We can find 500-2800 mg/L of copper there. The natural content of copper in rivers ranges 0.0009-0.002 mg/L, in seas, accordingly 0.00002-0.0003 mg/L. A significant source of copper in the sea is atmospheric rain precipitation. Despite a relatively slow migration of copper, it gets into groundwater. The presence of copper (up to 0.015 mg/L) has been reported in fourth category waters within the area of old Oder river valley. Permissible concentration of copper in groundwaters has been established as not bigger than 0.02 mg/L.

World nickel production is currently 1.1 million tonnes per year. Anthropogenic emissions of nickel is estimated at 50 thousand tonnes per year. However, nickel emissions coming from natural sources does not exceed 8 thousand tonnes per year. In the atmosphere of small non- industrialized cities, the concentration of nickel ranges between 1 and 10 ng/m³. In heavily industrialized areas concentration may exceed 180 ng/m³. Nickel is an active allergen and carcinogen. For this reason, each dose of nickel is considered dangerous to health and the environment. For the purposes of health risk assessment, recommended concentration of nickel in the air should not be higher than 2.5 ng/m³ and 0.02 mg/L in water .

World production of lead is currently 3.3 million tonnes per year. In the atmosphere, the concentration of lead in the rural area does not exceed 150 ng/m³, and in less polluted cities remains below 500 ng/m³. Close to the smelters and incinerators concentration may exceed 250,000 ng/m³. Lead tends to accumulate in the tissues of humans and animals where it is particularly harmful to the nervous systems. Most vulnerable organs include liver, kidney, bone marrow and brain. Safe lead concentration is considered as being 500 ng/m³ in the air and 0.01 mg/L in water.

Among the most toxic heavy metals is mercury, an extremely rare element in the environment. However mercury is released by industrial emissions. In 2003 world mining of mercury approached 3.3 thousand tonnes. Calculations show, that every year, 5.5 thousand tonnes of mercury finds its way into the environment. Mercury’s application in many technologies has been systematically reduced, therefore majority of emissions come from resources accumulated in the past. Most recent estimates emphasize, that more than 200 thousand tonnes of mercury have penetrated environment since 1890. Out of this amount, 95% was adsorbed by the soil, about 3% escaped into the oceans, and 2% remain in the air. The main source of mercury emissions comes from burning of coal. Rural areas atmosphere may contain 2 to 4 ng/m³ of mercury, while polluted cities’ air carries up to 10 ng/m³ of mercury. Ultimately, mercury accumulates at the bottom sediments of water reservoirs, where bacteria tends to absorb it. Bacteria convert any compound of mercury in to the toxic form of methylmercury. This poison enters the food chain from the bottom to the top, therefore affecting all predators and humans. Rivers, lakes and areas of oceans that receive industrial and municipal wastewater, are full of fishes heavily contaminated by mercury. Such sea-food is the largest source of toxic mercury in food. It is recommended for the purpose of risk assessment, that mercury concentration in the air should not exceed 1000 ng/m³, and 0.001 mg/L in the water.

asbestos

Asbestos minerals are widespread in the environment. They may be found as homogeneous natural soil deposits or as impurities in other mineral deposits. The former undergoes erosion. Asbestos is made up of thin, easily separating parallel fibers. Amphibole asbestos fibers are generally brittle and often take the form of rods or needles. Elastic chrysotile asbestos fibers are obtained from serpentinite rocks. Chrysotile, also known as white asbestos, is the main commercial form of asbestos. Amphiboles (another type of asbestos) possess less commercial importance. Asbestos fibers do not have any measurable odor or taste, do not dissolve in water, do not evaporate and are resistant to heat, fire, chemical and biological degradation. Due to its characteristics, asbestos is widely used , mainly for the manufacture of building materials, brake linings, thermal insulation and fire-resistant composites/fabrics. Estimates point at economic use of over 1000 different types of processes and related products containing asbestos. The first use of asbestos prior to 4500 years ago, was confirmed by modern excavations. Mass utilization has started in the beginning of XX century - in construction industry and in almost any other area of manufacturing. For example, Polish construction industry alone (manufacture of roofing, facades and insulations) has applied 15 mil. tonnes of asbestos. Due to the carcinogenic properties of asbestos, most of the its applications have been banned by law, but in many countries technical products containing asbestos continue to be in use (for example in India).

The greatest exposure comes from breathing air contaminated by asbestos fibers. These fibers come from natural sources or from decomposing products such as insulation, automotive brakes and clutches, ceiling and floor plasterboard or roof plates. Traces of asbestos fibers are found in almost any air sample. For example, 10 parts of asbestos/m³ can be detected in rural areas. In the cities it can be ten times higher. In the vicinity of asbestos mines or factories processing asbestos, contamination may reach 10,000 or more fibers/m³. Buildings that have been erected using asbestos-containing materials, may possibly be surrounded by air saturated well above average number of asbestos fibers. Similar situation can be described in the vicinity of any unprotected and corroding asbestos waste storage. Concentrations of fibers measured in homes, schools and other buildings constructed with materials that contain asbestos, range from about 30 to 6000 fibers/m³.

Drinking water contaminated by asbestos fibers represents source of exposure to asbestos. Fibers presence may occur due to wash outs by rising level of ground waters, each time water comes in contact with deposits of asbestos landfills. Water pipes made of asbestos-cement, or asbestos-containing filters, used for water treatment, can lead to exposure to asbestos. The content of asbestos in most drinking water supplies is less than 1 million fibers per liter, even in areas where water is taken from the mineral deposits of asbestos, or where water pipes are made of asbestos-cement. However, in some places, water samples may contain 10-300 million fibers per liter or more.

The main sources of information about health effects of exposure to asbestos in the air, are people who were in contact with specific asbestos fibers (equal or longer than 5 microns). Exposures would take place in workplaces saturated by 5 million fibers/m³ or more. Workers from such places displayed damage to lung’s tissue and lung’s membranes. This disease is called asbestosis. People with asbestosis suffer from shortness of breath, which is frequently accompanied by cough. This is a serious disease and may eventually lead to disability or death. The longer exposure/higher concentration, the more deadly consequences. Asbestosis usually do not occur in people exposed to low levels of asbestos. Changes in the membrane around the lungs (medical term “pleura“), are often found in people occupationally exposed to asbestos, and sometimes in people living in areas saturated with high levels of asbestos fibers.

Exposure to asbestos increases chances of being affected by lung and pleura cancer (mesothelioma). These diseases do not develop immediately, but appear after a few or a dozen years. Lung cancer is usually fatal, while mesothelioma is almost always fatal. Death often occurs within a few months after the onset of symptoms. Cigarette smoking increases the risk of lung cancer for people exposed to asbestos. In addition, well-known facts connect the risk of certain diseases to the type and size of asbestos fibers. For example, it is believed that a variety of amphibole asbestos (tremolite, amosite, and especially crocidolite) may be more harmful than chrysotile, when it comes to mesothelioma. For this reason, there is neither precise indication for safe levels of asbestos fibers in the air (it is assumed that several hundred fibers per cubic meter can be considered as safe) nor any criterion for the content of asbestos in drinking water.

conclusions

Introduction of light bulbs containing mercury, should not ignore the issue of recycling mercury in the territories covered energy reform. Similarly, we must address recycling importance of materials containing lead, mercury, cadmium and nickel, before increasing share of electric propulsion systems in public transportation and communication. Analysis of the life cycle of industrial products, the risk assessment for each form of economic activity, are the a new and important tasks for scientific communities responsible for making decisions. You may ask important questions like: whether a traditional farming which use poisonous chemicals is better than new systems of controlled release of genetically modified organisms. Or: should organic farming use copper-based repellants instead of biotechnologically modified natural repellents? Evidence and detailed registering of poisons on a global scale should also be part of the debate about global warming. Perhaps existence of such poisons results in degradation of the biosphere, consequently reducing its natural ability to absorb greenhouse gases.

In addition to practical conclusions, research on the global impact of anthropogenic poisons should provide reviews of methodologies utilized for risk assessment . Typically, such reviews are part of the analysis of benefits and losses resulting from particular economic activity. These reviews concentrate on the potential direct impacts of poisons on public health and vulnerable ecosystems. When impacts are within the generally accepted tolerance limits, environmental risk assessment ends with a statement concluding absence of negative effects of particular scrutinized human activity. In practice this means that the activity will be assessed as beneficial, even if the obtained data indicate significant poison release. As a matter of fact, each technological process can be designed in such way that emissions are dispersed in the environment before they reach vulnerable populations. The most obvious example is the nuclear power plants fitted with ejection of gases to the upper atmosphere. Chimneys of nuclear power plants do not limit the emission of radioactive gases and dust into the atmosphere. They are part of the technique to achieve "safe levels" of emissions without emissions reductions.

There are many observations of the impacts of anthropogenic eco-toxins on human population. This cries for introduction of a new criterions for assessing the environmental damage. Unfortunately, manipulations of demographic indicators in countries particularly exposed to contaminations is a well-known and documented. Much less attention has been given to more complex phenomenon whose understanding often requires knowledge of molecular biology. It is estimated that every two billion people suffer from serious illnesses. One quarter of all deaths is caused by infectious diseases. Diseases are transmitted by direct contact of infected animals and humans, therefore causing increased share of the mortality. There is a growing number of illnesses/infections non-responding to medications and antibiotics. This creates extra burden for any given health care system. Epidemics of viral diseases appear with increasing frequency and intensity. The latest WHO projections for pandemic influenza , calls for the death of 2 million people in states where vaccinations are well planned. In other parts of the world, number may reach 324 million deaths.

Increasing pressure on health systems is evident due to growing expectations from modern medicine, new pharmaceuticals and advanced methods of treatments. It is also, because people from different and separated regions of the world get more often in direct contact, therefore exposing themselves to unknown illnesses and diseases. But rising pressure from anthropogenic eco-toxins cannot be overlooked. Global biosphere accumulated tens of millions of tonnes of carcinogenic chemicals. These chemicals are the cause of cancer epidemics among humans, animals and plants. Also, the emergence of frequent viral diseases may be triggered by increasing share of the population affected by genetic disorders. Retroviruses such as HIV and type A influenza, are mostly attracted to changes within those cells having deformed DNA record. So it is no coincidence, that the pandemics of diseases caused by this group of viruses pose another, after cancer, risk for the human population. Presence of variety of nasty carcinogenic chemicals in waters , landfills, and in the air all over the world, could cause a global catastrophe. Recently terrorists represent particular danger as being capable of spreading deadly diseases. In many countries, crisis responding organizations have been trying to be prepared for such event. Meanwhile, new pathogen agents continue to be spontaneously created in humans and animals exposed to carcinogenic chemicals. We may rely on the effectiveness of emergency response systems, but we must do everything possible to eliminate anthropogenic poisons from being in constant use.